.Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D. Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India
Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed. Former Principal. A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India
Our present knowledge of the nervous system fits in so accurately with the internal description of the human body given in the Vedas (5000 years ago). Then the question arises whether the Vedas are really religious books or books on anatomy of the nervous system and medicine. ~~~ Rele (Jewish writer)
“Modern India will find her identity and the modern Indian will regain his soul when our people begin to have some understanding of our priceless heritage. A nation which has had a great past can look forward with confidence to a great future.
The ancient thinkers of India were not only scientists and mathematicians, but also deeply religious, esteemed saints of their time. While it may surprise some to think of religious sages as mundane scientists, , Atreya showed a correlation between mind, body, spirit and ethics. He outlined a charter of ethics centuries before the modern Hippocratic Oath. Atrey was quick to emphasize, proper nutrition according to dosha, and considerd mind/body/soul relationship as most inevitable. He considered that the best medicine for all is spiritual and ethical life.The Indian view is that religion (universal) and science are but two sides of the same coin. The records of Hindu medicine begin with the Atharva Veda. In this oldest system of Hindu medicine illness is attributed to disorder in one of the four humors (air, water, phlegm and blood.
The Treatment in the Samkhya Darshan
Isvarakrsna mentions eleven kinds of anaesthesia of the sense- organs (indriya-badha) corresponding to the eleven kinds of sense- organs five sensory organs, five motor organs, and one central sensory as distinguished from the peripheral organs. And besides these eleven kinds of sense-disorders and their effects on the intellect, he mentions seventeen other kinds of the disorders of the intellect (luddhtladha), 1 Mathara says that indriyabadha means the incapacity of the sense-organs for apprehending their objects ; the sense-disorders cannot produce right apprehension. 2
Vacaspati misra explains the disorders of the five sense-organs as deafness (badhirya] or anaesthesia of the auditory organ, cutaneous insensibility (kusthita) or anaesthesia of the tactual organ, blindness (andhatva) or anaesthesia of the visual organ, numbness of the tongue and loss of the sense of taste (jadataj or anaesthesia of the gustatory organ, and insensibility to smell (ajighrata) or anaesthesia of the olfactory organ. He describes the abnormalities of the motor organs as dumbness (mukata) or paralysis of the vocal organ, paralysis of the hands or prehensory organ (kaunya\ paralysis of the legs or the locomotive organ (pangutva), paralysis of the excretive organ (udavarta)) and impotence or paralysis of the generative organ (klatbya). And he explains the anaesthesia of the mind as utter insensibility to pleasure, pain and the like (mandata}. Gaudapadaregards insanity (unmada) as the anaesthesia of the mind. 3
Corresponding to these eleven kinds of sense-disorders there are eleven kinds of intellectual disorders (buddhibadhd) which consist in the non-production of psychoses corresponding to peripheral and central stimulations, or in the production of psychoses which are not in keeping with peripheral and central stimulations. And besides these eleven kinds of disorders of the intellect corresponding to the eleven kinds of sense-disorders, there are seventeen kinds of abnormalities which are purely intellectual due to some defects of the intellect, and do not owe their origin to the stimulations of the peripheral organs or the central sensory affected by pathological disorders. These intellectual disorders consist in the production of such psychoses as are contradictory to the nine kinds of tusti or intellectual complacence and eight kinds of siddhi or fruition of the peripheral organs or the central sensory affected by pathological disorders. These intellectual disorders consist in the production of such psychoses as are contradictory to the nine kinds of tusti or intellectual complacence and eight kinds of siddhi or fruition of intellectual operations. Thus altogether there are twenty-eight kinds of disorders of the intellect.
The Treatment in the Ancient Medical Literature
In the medical works of the ancient Hindus we find a description and explanation of various kinds of sense-disorders and consequent abnormalities in sense-perception. Our account of abnormal perceptions would be incomplete without a reference to this account in the medical works. First we shall give an account of the abnormalities of visual perception as described by Susruta. But his account of the disorders of visual perception cannot be fully understood unless we understand his view of the mechanism of the visual organ. So we briefly refer to the mechanism of the eye described by him.
Mechanism of the Visual Organ
The eye-ball (nayana-ludbuda] is almost round in shape and about an inch in diameter. It is made up of five elements. The muscles of the eye-ball are formed by the solid elements of earth (bhu) ; the blood in the veins and arteries of the eye-ball is formed by the element of heat (tejas) ; the black part of the eye-ball (Iris, etc.) in which the pupil is situated is formed by the gaseous element (vayu) the white part of the eye-ball (vitreous body) is made up of the fluid element (Jala) ; and the lachrymal or other ducts or sacs (asrumarga) through which the secretions are discharged, are made up of the ethereal element (akasa].There are five mandalas^ or circles, and six patalas^ or layers, inthe eye. The five mandalas are the following, viz.
(i) the drstimandala (the pupil),
(2) the krsna-mandala (the choroid)
(3) the sveta-mandala (the sclerotic and cornea),
(4) the vartma-mandala (the eye-lid), and
(5) the paksma-mandala (the circle of the eye-lashes). 4
” The different parts of the eye-ball are held together by the blood-vessels, the muscles, the vitreous body, and the choroid. Beyond the choroid, the eye-ball is held (in the orbit) by a mass of Sleshma (viscid substance capsule of Tenon) supported by a number of vessels. The deranged Doshas which pass upward to the region of the eyes through the channels of the up-coursing veins and nervesgive rise to a good many dreadful diseases in that region.” 5
Abnormalities in Visual “Perception
According to the Hindu medical science, all diseases are due to the provocation of three humours of the body, flatulent, bilious, and phlegmatic. So the disorders of visual perception are brought about by the bodily humours (dosas) attacking the different layers of the eye.
(1) ” All external objects appear dim and hazy to the sight when the deranged Doshas of the locality passing through the veins (Sira) of the eye, get into and are incarcerated within the first Patala (inner- most coat) of the pupil (Drishti).”
(2) ” False images of gnats, flies, hairs, nets or cobwebs, rings (circular patches), flags, ear-rings appear to the sight, and the external objects seem to be enveloped in mist or haze or as if laid under a sheet of water or as viewed in rain and on cloudy days, and meteors of different colours seem to be falling constantly in all directions in the event of the deranged Doshas being similarly confined in the second Patala (coat) of the Drishti. In such cases the near appearance of an actually remote object and the contrary (Miopia and Biopia) also should be ascribed to some deficiency in the rangeof vision (error of refraction in the crystalline lens) which incapacitates the patient from looking through the eye and hence from threading a needle.”
(3) ” Objects situate high above are seen and these placed below remain unobserved when the deranged Doshas are infiltrated into the third Patala (coat) of the Drishti. The Doshas affecting the Drishti (crystalline lens), if highly enraged, impart their specific colours to the objects of vision. . . . The deranged Doshas situated at and obstructing the lower, upper, and lateral parts of the Drishti (crystalline lens) respectively shut out the view of near, distant and laterally situate objects. A dim and confused view of the external world is all that can be had when the deranged Doshas spread over and affect the whole of the Drishti (crystalline lens). A thing appears to the sight as if cut into two (bifurcated) when the deranged Doshas affect the middle part of the lens, and as triply divided and severed when the Doshas are scattered in two parts ; while a multifarious image of the same object is the result of the manifold distributions of movability of the Doshas over the Drishti.” 6
(4) When the fourth patala of the eye is attacked by the deranged humours, we have a loss of vision (timira]. When the vision is completely obstructed by the deranged humours, it is called linganasa (blindness). When linganasa is not deep-seated but superficial, we have only a faint perception of the images of the sun, the moon and the stars, the heaven, a flash of lightning, and such other highly brilliant objects. The linganasa (blindness) is also called nillka and kaca.
Timira (Loss of Vision)
There are various kinds of timira or loss of vision. In the type of timara due to the derangement of the flatulent humour (vataja) external objects appear to the sight as cloudy, moving, crooked, and red. In the type of timira due to the derangement of the bilious humour (pittaja) external objects appear to be invested with the different colours of the spectrum, of the glow-worm, of the flash oflightning, of the feathers of a peacock, or coloured with a dark blue tint. In the type of timira due to the derangement of the phlegmatic humour (kaphaja} all objects appear to the sight as covered witha thick white coat like that of a patch of white cloud, and look white, oily, and dull, and appear hazy and cloudy on a fine day, or as if laid under a sheet of water. In the type of timira due to deranged blood (raktaja) all objects appear red or enveloped in gloom, and they assume a greyish, blackish or variegated colour. In another type of timira (sannipatika) external objects appear to the vision as doubled or trebled, variegated and confused, and abnormal images of stars and planets float about in the vision. In the type of timira due to deranged bile in concert with deranged blood, which is called parimlayi, the quarters of the heaven look yellow and appear to the sight as if brilliant with the light of the rising sun, and trees appear as if sparkling with the flashes of glow-worms
.Besides these six types of Imganasa^ there are six other kinds peculiar to the drsti (pupil), which are called pitta-vidagdha-drsti) slesma-vidagdha-drsti, dhuma-drsti, hrasva-jatya, nakulandhya and gambhirika,
(1) In pitta-vidagdha-drsti all external objects appear yellow to the sight, and nothing can be seen in the day, but things can be seen only at night. It is due to an accumulation of the deranged bile in the third patala or coat of the eye.
(2) In slesma-vidagdha-drsti all external objects appear white to the sight, and they can be seen only in the day, but not at night ; this is called nocturnal blindness. It is due to an accumulation of the deranged phlegm in all the three patalas or coats of the eye.
(3) In dhuma-drstl the external objects appear smoky. It is due to grief, high fever, excessive physical exercise, or injury to head, etc.
(4) In hrasva-jatya small objects can be seen with the greatest difficulty even in the day-time, but they can be seen easily and distinctly at night.
(5) In nakuldndhya the external objects appear multi-coloured in the day-time, and nothing can be seen at night.
(6) In gambhirika the pupil is contracted and deformed and sinks into the socket, attended with an extreme pain in the affected parts. 7
Caraka says that when the cerebrum is injured the eye-sight is affected and we have disorders in visual perception. 8 And he also says that timira or blindness is due to the excessive provocation of the flatulent humour.
Abnormalities in Auditory Perception
Susruta describes three kinds of disorders in sound-perception, viz. pranada or karna-nada, karna-ksveda and badhirya.9 In pranada or karna-nada ringing and various other sounds are heard in the ear. In karna-ksveda only a peculiar type of sound is heard in the ear. It differs from karna-nada in that in this disease only a sound of a special kind, viz. that of a wind-pipe, is heard in the ear, while in the latter various kinds of sounds are produced in the ear. In badhirya or deafness there is a complete loss of hearing. 10
Caraka holds that badhirya or complete deafness is due to the provocation of the flatulent humour. He mentions two other kinds of disorders in auditory perception, viz. asabda-sravana and uccaihsruti which also are due to the provocation of the flatulent humour. The former is that kind of deafness in which a person can hear words uttered very softly or in whispers only. The latter is that form of deafness in which a person hears only such words as are uttered very loudly. 11
Abnormalities in Olfactory Perception
Susruta describes many disorders of the olfactory organ, of which one may be regarded as a cause of the loss of the sense of smell. In apinasa (obstruction in the nostrils) there is a chokingand burning sensation in the nostrils with a deposit of filthy slimy mucus in their passages, which deaden the sense of smell and taste for the time being. In a malignant type of pratisyaya (catarrh), too, there is an insensibility to smell. 12
Caraka also refers to ghrana-nasa which consists in the loss of the sensation of smell, and is due to the provocation of the flatulent humour. 13
Abnormalities in Gustatory Perception
Caraka mentions arasanjata as a disease of the tongue in which there is a complete loss of the sensation of taste ; it is due to the provocation of the flatulent humour. He also describes the different kinds of tastes owing to the provocation of different kinds of humours. Owing to the provocation of the flatulent humour a person has an astringent taste in the mouth, and sometimes does not feel any taste at all. Owing to the provocation of the bilious humour a person feels in his tongue the presence of an acrid or sour taste. Owing to the provocation of the phlegmatic humour a person feels in his mouth the presence of a sweet taste. And owing to the simultaneous provocation of all the three humours, a person feels the presence of many tastes in his mouth. Caraka also refers to the disease of tiktasyata or a constant bitter taste in the mouth owing to the provocation of the bilious humour. He also refers to mukhamadhurya or a constant sweet taste in the mouth, and kasayasyata or a constant astringent taste in the mouth, 14
Abnormalities in Tactual Perception
Caraka and Susruta describe cutaneous affections as kusthas which are of various kinds and which give rise to various kinds of disordered cutaneous sensations. According to Sus’ruta, when the cutaneous affection is confined only to the serous fluid of the skin, there are the following symptoms, viz. loss of the perception of touch, itching sensation, etc. ; when it is confined to the blood, it brings about complete anaesthesia ; when it affects only the flesh, there are various symptoms such as excruciating pricking pain in the affected part and its numbness ; and when it affects the fat, the body seems to be covered with a plaster. 15 In the various kinds of cutaneous affections described by Caraka and Susruta there is partial or complete anaesthesia together with various kinds of disorders in cutaneous, organic, and muscular sensations. 16
Caraka also mentions various other abnormalities in tactile sensations (including organic and muscular sensations) such as ekangaroga (partial or local paralysis), paksabadha (side paralysis),sarvangaroga (complete paralysis), dandaka (stiffness of the whole body like a log of wood), osa (the disease in which the patient feels the sensation of fire being always placed very near his body), plosa (the disease in which the patient has the sensation of his body being slightly scorched by fire), daha (a sensation of burning experienced in every part of the body), davathu (a sensation of every part of the body having been subject to painful inflammation), ant ar daha (a burning sensation within the body, generally within the thorax), amsadaha (a burning sensation in the shoulders), usmadhikya (excess of internal heat in the body), mamsadaha (a sensation of burning in the flesh), etc. 17
Disorders in the Motor Organs
Caraka refers to the abnormalities of the vocal organ such as vaksanga (temporary dumbness or difficulty in speaking, e.g. stammering) gadgadatva (slowness of speech), and mukatva (complete dumbness). When the cerebrum is injured, there are slowness of speech, loss of voice, and complete dumbness. 18 Temporary dumbness (vaksanga) and complete dumbness (mukatva) are due to the provocation of the flatulent humour. 19
Caraka says that when the cerebrum is injured there is a loss of motor effort (cestanasa) According to him, the heart is the seat of the mind, the intellect, and consciousness. But the cerebrum is the seat of sensory and motor centres. He says that just as the rays of the sun have their seat in the sun, so the sensory and motor organs and the vital currents of the sense-organs have their seat in the cerebrum. 20
Mental Blindness (Manobadha)
According to Caraka, the heart is the seat of consciousness. So when the heart is injured, we have epilepsy (apasmara) insanity (unmada\ delirium (praldpa\ and loss of the mind {cittanasa). This paralysis of the mind (cittanasa) may be called ” mental blindness ” in the language of William James. ” When mental blindness is more complete,” says James, ” neither sight, touch, nor sound avails to steer the patient, and a sort of dementia which has been called asymbolia or apraxia is the result.” 21
” According to Caraka, the prdna and the udana which are biomorphic forces, the mind (manas\ the intellect (buddhi\ and consciousness (cetand) have their seat in the heart. 22 So when the heart is overpowered by the provocation of the phlegmatic humour, consciousness is benumbed, and lapses into semi-unconsciousness (tandra)? And when the heart is overpowered by the provocation of the flatulent humour, consciousness is suspended and lapses into torpor or unconsciousness (moha).
Causes of Sense-disorders and Mental Disorders
According to Caraka, there are four kinds of correlation or contact of the sense-organs with their objects, viz. atiyoga or excess of contact, ayoga or total absence of contact, hmayoga or sparing or partial contact, and mithyayoga or contact of sense-organs with disagreeable objects, -dtiyoga corresponds to over-use of a sense-organ, ayoga to its non-use, hmayoga to its under-use, and mlthydyoga to its misuse. This account of Caraka has a strangely modern ring.
There is no doubt that sense-disorders are to a great extent due to the abnormal functioning of the sense-organs. So Caraka’s explana- tion is very significant. He accounts for the disorders of the sense- organs and consequent abnormalities of sense-perceptions by the excess of correlation, absence of correlation, partial or insufficient correlation, and injudicious correlation of the sense-organs with their respective objects. Tathayoga or judicious correlation of a sense- organ with its object preserves the normal condition of the organ, and also keeps the perceptions produced by that organ unimpaired.
But excessive exercise, absence of judicious exercise, insufficient exercise, and injudicious exercise impair the sense-organs, and con- sequently impair the perceptions produced by them. Caraka gives us some examples to illustrate the different kinds of correlation of the sense-organs with their objects. A continuous gaze at very bright objects is an example of excessive correlation of the visual organ. Total abstention from exercising the eye is absence of correlation. The sight of objects that are very minute or very distant, or that are hateful, terrible, amazing, repulsive, or extremely ugly is an example of injudicious correlation. All these impair the sense of vision.
Excessive correlation of the auditory organ arises from constantly exposing the ear to the stunning report of thunder or beat of a drum or loud cries. Total abstention from hearing by closing the ears is the absence of correlation. Injudicious correlation arises from hearing sounds that are rough, harsh, dreadful, uncongenial, disagreeable, and indicative of danger. These impair the sense of hearing.
Excessive correlation of the olfactory organ arises from constantly smelling very keen and powerful scents which call forth tears, excite nausea, produce stupefaction, etc. Total abstention from all scents is the absence of correlation. Injudicious correlation arises from smelling odours emitted by putrid objects, or objects that are poisonous, disagreeable, or repulsive. These impair the sense of smell.
Excessive correlation of the gustatory organ arises when the objects producing any of the six kinds of taste are taken in an excessive degree. Total abstention from tasting is the absence of correlation .Injudicious correlation arises from tasting things which are made up of incompatible ingredients, or which are not suitable to the organism. These impair the sense of taste.
References
1 Samkhyakrika of Isvarakrsna Qlvananada’s edition, Calcutta,.49.
2 Matharavrtti, 49.
3 Samkhyatattvakaumudl of Vfcaspati Misra (with Vidvattosini, Bombay, Samvat, 1969). 49, and Gaudapadabhasya, 49.
4 Susrutasamkitsjuttaratantra, Ch. I. E.T. by Kunjalal Bhishagratna.
5 Susruta Samhita, Uttara-Tantra, vol. iii, English translation by Kaviraj Kunjalal Bhishagratna, p. 4.
6 Susrata Samhits, Uttara Tantra, vol. HI, English translation of Kaviraj Kunjalal Bhishagratna, chapter vii, pp. 25-6,
7 Susruta Samkita, Uttara Tantra, English translation, vol. iii,chapter vii, pp. 25-30,
8 Caraka-SarhKita”, SiddhisthSnajm, cL h, 9.
9 Ibid. ? Siatra-sthanam, chapter xx ; 12,
10 Susruta Samhita”, Uttara Tantra, ck. xx.
11 Caraka Sariihita, Sutra-sthSna, lesson xx, 12.
12 Susruta Samhita, Uttara Tantra, ch. xxii.
13 Caraka Samhjta, Sutra-sthana, lesson xx, 12.
14 Caraka SamHta, Sutra-sthana, lesson x.
15 Susruta SamhitS, Nidana-sthana, ch. v.
16 Susruta Samhita”, Nidana-sthana, ch. v, and Caraka Samhita, Sutrasthsna, ch, xx.
17 Caraka Samhita”, Sutra-sthana, lesson x.
18 Caraka Samhita, Siddhisthana, ix, 9.
19 Caraka Saihhita”, Sutra-sthSna, xx, 12.
20 Ibid., Siddhisthana, ch. ix, 5.
21 Principles of Psychology , vol. i, p. 52.
22 Caraka Samhita, Siddhisthana, ix, 4. ix, 28.