Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D.
Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India
Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed.
Former Principal, A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India
The writer must believe that what he is doing is the most important thing in the world. And he must hold to this illusion even when he knows it is not true.
John Steinbeck
Indian philosophers treat psychology always as the basis of epistemology and ontology , and their psychological analysis is sometimes coloured by their meta-physical presuppositions. The treatment of Indian philosophers of illusory perceptions is more psychological than physiological. And their psychological analysis of illusory perception is closely allied with the determination of its epistemological value and ontological basis. They do not give an exhaustive classification of the different kinds of illusions with reference to all the sense-organs. But still they give a psychological classification of the principal types of illusions.
The different schools of Indian philosophers have tackled the problem of illusion in different ways. They give us slightly different accounts about its psychological nature. There is a hot controversy among them about its ontological basis and their polemics against one another exhibit their wonderful power of psychological analysis and rare meta- physical acumen.
kinds of Illusions
Samkara Mis’ra and Jayasimhasuri divides illusions into two kinds
1)-Anulhuyamanaropa- those which consist in false ascription of an actually perceived object to another object present to a sense-organ (anulhuyamanaropa) . They illustrates the first kind of illusion by the illusory perception of the double moon. They explains it in the following manner. When we press the eye-ball with a finger, the moon appears to be double but before the eye-ball was pressed the moon appeared to be single, and after the pressing has ceased the moon appears to be single. And sometimes the illusion of the double moon is due to the excess of darkness (timira) within the eye-ball, which bifurcates the ray of light issuing out of the eye-ball. In this illusion an object revived in memory is not falsely ascribed to an object present to a sense- organ.
(2) Smaryamanaropa- those which consist in false ascription of an object revived in memory to another object present to a sense-organ (smaryamanaropa}.The illusions of the second kind are produced by the sense-organs in co-operation with subconscious impressions, like recognition. They cannot be produced by the sense-organs alone ; nor can they be produced by subconscious impressions alone ; they are produced by both taken together. For instance, the illusory perception of silver in a nacre is produced by the visual organ in contact with the nacre, in co-operation with the subconscious impression of silver revived by the perception of brightness of the nacre, which it has in common with silver.
Jayanta Bhatta divides illusory perceptions into two kinds, Indriyaja bhranti (Illusion) and Manasi Ihranti (Hallucination):
(1) Indriyaja bhranti Illusion- Those which are produced by the peripheral organs,
They are peripherally excited. They are produced by some defects in the external stimuli, or by some defects in the peripheral organs. They are never without objective substrates as they are always produced by external stimuli (salambana}.
(2) Manasi bhranti – Those which are produced by the central organ or mind (manasa]. They are centrally excited.They are produced by some defects in the central organ or mind. They are always without objective substrates,as they are never produced by external stimuli (niralambana}.
Jayanta Bhatta illustrates these different kinds of illusory perceptions. The illusory perceptions of silver in a nacre, and of a sheet of water in the rays of the sun reflected on sands in a desert are illusions due to defects in the external stimuli (visaya-dosa). The illusory perceptions of bitter sugar, double moon and a mass of hair are illusions due to defects in the peripheral organs (indriya-dosa).
All these are illusions, have no external stimuli ; they are independent of the peripheral organs ; they are solely of mental origin ; they are due to some defects in the mind (manodosa or antahkarana-dosa}. For example, when a lover is overpowered by stormy passion awakened by pangs of separation, he perceives the semblance of his beloved lady near him, though she is far away. illusions are due to the recollection of objects distant in time and space owing to the revival of their subconscious impressions.
Dreams also are illusions due to revival of subconscious impressions left by previous perceptions ; they are excited by the mind overcome by drowsiness. Thus in hallucinations the forms which appear in consciousness are mostly memory-images owing to the revival of their subconscious impressions.
There are numerous forms of Hallucinations:
Sadrsa Vijnana- When awakened by similar cognitions
Kamasokadt- Because of strong passions, e.g. lust, grief, etc.
Taddarsanabhyasa- Sometimes by the habitual perception of these objects.
Nidra-Because of drowsiness.
Cinta-Sometimes by constant thinking.
Dhatunam vikrtih- Sometimes by perversion of the bodily humours
Adrsta-(i.e. merit or demerit) Where there are no other causes.
Sridhara also divides illusory perceptions into peripherally excited illusions and centrally excited illusions or hallucinations. He divides the former again into indeterminate (nirvikalpaka) illusions and determinate (savikalpaka) illusions. Indeterminate illusions contain only presentative elements ; they are due to pathological disorders
(1)-Peripherally excited illusions of the peripheral organs alone.Devided further into two forms:
a-(Nirvikalpaka) illusions- indeterminate, contain only presentative elements ; they are due to pathological disorders of the peripheral organs alone For example, when we perceive a white conch-shell as yellow, the illusion is purely presentative in character, and is produced by the visual organ perverted by pre-ponderance of the bilious humour..
b-(Savikalpaka) illusions- determinate Determinate illusions contain both presentative and representative elements ; they are produced by the peripheral organs in co-operation with subconscious impressions – For example, when we mistake a nacre for a piece of silver, the illusion is produced by the perverted visual organ in contact with the nacre in co-operation with the subconscious impression of silver. Here the illusory perception contains both presentative and representative elements , the presentative element (idam) is produced by the perverted visual organ, and the representative element (rajatam) by the subconscious impression. But the illusion is perceptual in character, though it contains presentative and representative elements hence it is produced by the perverted visual organ in co-operation with the subconscious impression of silver.
Sridhara points out that these illusions are produced by external stimuli which have certain features in common with those objects which are manifested in illusory perceptions ; this similarity between the real objects or external stimuli (e.g. nacre) and the illusory objects (e.g. silver) appearing in consciousness is the cause of these illusions. But hallucinations are not peripherally excited ; they arise solely from some derangement of the mind or the central sensory. Hallucinations never arise out of the perception of similarity which is not possible in these cases, since there are no external stimuli to excite them. For instance, when a man is infatuated with love for a woman he perceives the semblance of his beloved, here, there, and everywhere, though there is no objective stimulus. Hallucinations are illusory perceptions because in them absent objects appear in consciousness as present.
2- Centrally excited illusions - . In centrally excited illusions , there are no external stimuli ; so they cannot be produced by the perception of the common features of two objects and the recollection of the peculiar features of one of the two. In illusions there is no perception of external objects, but only a perception of those objects which are reproduced in memory andprojected into the external world. Recollection alone is the cause of hallucinations, while perception and recollection both are the causes of those peripherally excited illusions which contain representative elements.
Thus both these kinds of illusions consist in false ascription of memory-images (smaryamanaropa). The former consist in the projection of memory-images into the external world. The latter consist in the superimposition of memory-images on external objects actually perceived. Thus the above two divisions of illusions are not mutually exclusive. But they are based on two different principles.
Causes of Illusions
Illusory perceptions are due to some defects (dosa) in the conditions of perception, or to wrong operation of the sense-organs with regard to their objects (asamprayoga) or to subconscious impressions (samskara).
(i) Illusory perceptions are produced by defects in any condition of perception– Ordinarily, sense-perception is produced by several conditions taken together. It requires an external object of perception and sometimes an external medium of perception, e.g. light in the case of visual perception. Then it requires an external sense-organ through which the object is perceived, and also the central organ or mind without the help of which the peripheral organs cannot operate on their objects. And in internal perception the mind alone is the channel of perception. Besides these, the self is involved in every act of perception ; it is the self which perceives an object through the senses. These are the conditions of sense-perception.
(ii) Illusions are due to defects in the external stimuli or objects (visaya-dosa)) e.g. similarity (sadrsya) movement (calatva) distance (duratva) etc. For instance, we perceive a nacre as a piece of silver (sukttka-rajata) a rope as a owing to similarity between the two in each case. Again, the rapid movement of a fire- brand in a circle produces the illusion of a circle (alatacakra). But when it is moved slowly it cannot produce the illusion of a circle.
(iii) Illusions are due to the movement of the conveyance (lahyasraya-dosa) in which we travel. For instance, when we move in a railway train the train moves and we also move along with it, but the trees and other objects around us appear to be moving.
(iv) Illusions are due to defects in the external medium of perception (e.g. alokamalimasatva]. For instance, when the light is dim or dirty, we sometimes mistake one object for another.
(v) Illusions are due to pathological disorders of the peripheral organs (bahyendriya-dosa). For instance, when the visual organ is affected by jaundice or preponderance of bile, we perceive a white conch-shell as yellow (pita-sankha}. Or when the eye-ball is pressed with a finger, the moon appears to be double (dvicandra).
(vi) Illusions are clue to pathological disorders of the bodily humours (adhyatmagatadosa) e.g. the flatulent humour, the bilious humour, and the phlegmatic humour. For instance, pillars of fire are seen owing to provocation of the bodily humours.
(vii) Illusions are due to defects in the central sensory or mind (antdhkarana-dosa or mano-dosa). For instance, when the mind is overpowered by the predominance of rajas or tamas we have illusory perceptions. When the mind is overpowered by strong emotion or passion we have illusory perceptions. A man infatuated with love for a woman, sees the semblance of his beloved here, there, and everywhere. When the mind is overpowered by drowsiness, we have illusory perceptions in the form of dreams.
(viii) Illusions are due to defects in the self (pramatr-dosa). For instance, when the self is affected by strong desire, aversion, hunger, rage, etc., we have illusory perceptions.
Prasastapada says that an illusory perception consists in the misapprehension of one object as another object, both of which were perceived in the past with their peculiar characters, and it is due to three causes :
(1)Wrong apprehension by a peripheral organ perverted by provocation of the bilious, phlegmatic, and flatulent humours .
(2) The mind-soul-contact depending upon the sub-conscious impression left by the previous cognition of an absent object ; and
(3) Demerit (adharma) ; as, for example, the illusory perception of a horse in a cow. Here Prasastapada refers to peripherally excited illusions which contain representative elements.
Sources of illusions
Dharmottara describes four sources of illusions, e.g. disorders of the peripheral organs, disturbances in the external stimuli, movement of the conveyance in which we travel, and disorders of the bodily humours. According to him, all these different causes of illusions must involve a derangement of the sense-organs. There can be no ” sense-illusions ” unless there are ” sense-disorders “.
Thus some illusions are due to some defects in the various conditions of perception. This condition of illusions is emphasized in the philosophy of Nyaya-Vaisesika.
In the second place, illusory perceptions are produced by wrong operation of the sense-organs with regard to their objects (asamprayoga}. This condition of illusions is mentioned by the Bhatta Mimariisakas. Right perception depends upon right inter- course between the sense-organs and their objects (satsamprayoga], It requires a real object (sat), and right intercourse between this object and the proper sense-organ (samprayoga). If there is no real object and still we have perceptual experience, the perception is illusory. In dreams there are no real objects or external stimuli, but still we have illusory perceptions of various objects. So dreams should be regarded as hallucinations. If, in spite of the presence of a real object, there is wrong intercourse between it and the proper sense-organ, we have illusory perception. For instance, when we mistake a nacre for a piece of silver, there is wrong intercourse between the visual organ and the nacre. Right perception depends upon the intercourse of that object with the proper sense-organ, which is manifested in consciousness. When one object is in contact with a sense-organ, but another object appears in consciousness, the perception is illusory. For instance, when a nacre is in contact with a visual organ, but a piece of silver appears in consciousness the perception is illusory. Thus right perception depends upon right operation of the sense-organs with regard to their objects, and illusory perception depends upon wrong operation of the sense-organs with regard to their objects. This condition of illusions, viz. asamprayoga emphasized by the Mimarhsakas, is included in visaya-dosa and indriya-dosa mentioned by the Nyaya-Vaisesika.
In the third place, illusory perceptions are produced by subconscious impressions (samskara]. We have already found that subconscious impressions are the causes of those peripherally excited illusions which contain representative elements. For example, when a nacre is in contact with the visual organ, we sometimes perceive only its brightness which is common to both nacre and silver, and the perception of this brightness revives the subconscious impression of silver, and the visual organ in co-operation with this subconscious impression produces the illusory perception of silver.
Thus subconscious impressions in co-operation with the peripheral organs produce those peripherally excited illusions which contain representative elements. We have also found that centrally excited illusions or hallucinations are due to subconscious impressions alone. For example, a lover infatuated with love for a woman sees his beloved near him, though she is far away. Here the subconscious impression of the woman is revived by the strong passion of love and invades the field of consciousness ; the memory-image of the woman distant in time and space appears like a woman actually perceived here and now.
Srldhara explains the functions of the peripheral organs and sub-conscious impressions in producing these kinds of illusions. He asks : When we mistake a cow for a horse, what is the cause of non-apprehension of the distinctive character of a cow ; and what is the cause of apprehension of the distinctive character of a horse which is not present to the visual organ ? He says that the visual organ cannot apprehend the distinctive character of a cow, though it is in contact with a cow, because it is perverted by the disorders of the bilious, phlegmatic, and flatulent humours. But how can the perverted sense-organ produce apprehension of the distinctive character of a horse which is not present to the visual organ ? Can it produce apprehension of absent objects ? If so, then it can produce apprehension of any absent object whatsoever at any time, and thus there will be nothing to determine the appearance of particular objects in consciousness in illusory perceptions.
Srldhara points out that the perverted sense-organ brings about apprehension of an absent object only in co-operation with the mind-soul-contact which depends upon the subconscious impression of an absent object. Though the visual organ is in contact with a cow, it cannot apprehend the object as a cow because it is perverted by disorders of the bodily humours. But still it apprehends the individual as endowed with those features which are common to cows and horses. The perception of similarity revives the subconscious impression of a horse ; and this subconscious impression being revived brings about the recollection of a horse ; and this recollection of a horse, owing to some perversion of the mind, produces the perceptual experience of a horse, in contact with the visual organ because of the similarity between a cow and a horse. Thus any absent object cannot appear in consciousness at any time in the presence of any object in contact with a perverted sense-organ
Similarity between a present object and an absent object, and the subconscious impression of the latter revived by the perception of similarity determine the appearance of a particular absent object in an illusory perception. Hence, the perverted sense-organs in co-operation with subconscious impressions produce certain illusory perceptions.
Psychological Analysis of an Illusion
A centrally excited illusion or hallucination is solely due to revival of subconscious impressions. A peripherally excited illusion which contains only presentative elements is due to pathological disorders of the peripheral organs. So these two kinds of illusions are simple psychoses. But a peripherally excited illusion which contains both presentative and representative elements is complex in character. It is due to the peripheral organs and subconscious impressions. This kind of illusion has been analysed by different schools of Indian thinkers in slightly different ways.
Let us consider the illusory perception of silver in a nacre. Is it a single psychosis ? Or is it a combination of two psychoses ? If it is a single psychosis, what is its nature ?
Prabhakara’s Analysis
Prabhakara holds that in an illusion there are two elements, an element of perception or presentation and an element of recollection or representation. When we perceive a nacre as silver, we perceive only the common qualities of nacre and silver, viz. brightness and the like, and the common qualities which are perceived in the nacre revive the idea of silver in memory by association. Thus in the illusion of silver in a nacre there is the perception of brightness and the like, and the recollection of silver. But so long as the illusion lasts we do not distinguish the presentative element from the representative element. Thus an illusion is made up of a presentative element and a representative element, in which there is no discrimination of the two factors from each other. This non-discrimination (vivekakhyati) of the presentative element from the representative element is the cause of exertion for the appropriation or avoidance of the object of illusion. A sublating cognition (badhaka-jnana) does not contradict an illusion, but simply recognizes the distinction between the presentative element and the representative element. But why are not the two elements discriminated from each other before the so-called sublative cognition Prabhakara holds that we cannot discriminate the representative element from the presentative element, because the former docs not appear in consciousness as representation or memory owing to smrtipramosa or obscuration of memory.
(ii) The Nyaya-vaisesika analysis
According to the Nyaya-Vaisesika, an illusion is a single psychosis of a presentative or perceptual character. In the illusion of silver in a nacre at first we perceive those qualities of the nacre which are common to both silver and nacre, e.g. brightness, etc., but we do not perceive the peculiar qualities of the nacre owing to the perversion of the visual organ ; then the perception of these common qualities reminds us of the peculiar qualities of silver by association. So far the Nyaya-Vaisesika agrees with Prabhakara. But according to the Nyaya-Vaisesika, the recollection of silver, owing to some perversion of the mind, produces the perception of silver, in contact with the visual organ ; the illusion of silver is perceptual in character it is experienced as a direct perception, and not as a recollection. If we regard an illusion as a mere reproduction of past experience, then we miss its distinctive psychological character.
According to the Neo-Naiyayika, the visual perception of silver in a nacre depends upon the extraordinary intercourse through the idea of silver revived in memory by association as we have already seen. Here there is no contact of the visual organ with actual silver ; there is no ordinary intercourse (laukika sanmkarsa] between the sense-organ and its object. But there is an extraordinary inter-course (alaukika sanmkarsa)^ by means of which the idea of silver reproduced in memory by association produces the visual perception of silver. This is called the extraordinary intercourse whose character is knowledge (jnana-laksana-sannikarsa).
(iii) The Samkara-Vedantists Analysis
According to the Vedantist, an illusion is a presentative process. The Sankara- Vedantist explains the illusion of silver in a nacre in the following manner. At first the visual organ perverted by certain pathological disorders comes in contact with the nacre which is present to the sense-organ, and brings about a mental mode in the form of ” this ” or ” brightness “. Then the object-consciousness determined by ” this ” is reflected in the mental mode, so that the mental mode streaming out of the sense-orifice, the object- consciousness (yisaya-caitanya) determined by ” this “, the mental consciousness (or consciousness determined by the mental mode) in the form of ” this ” (vrtti-caitanya\ and the logical subject- consciousness (pramatr-caitanya) are identified with one another. Then there is produced avldyd or nescience in the form of nacre , this avidya exists in the object-consciousness which has been identified with the subject-consciousness. This avidya in co-operation with the subconscious impression of silver revived by the perception of the common features, e.g. brightness and the like, and with the help of the peripheral disorders, is transformed into illusory silver (pratibhasika rajata\ on the one hand, and the illusory perception of silver (rajatajnanathasa) on the other. Stripped of all epistemological and metaphysical implications, the Sarhkarite’s analysis of an illusion is exactly the same as that of the Nyaya-Vaisesika from the psychological point of view. According to both, an illusion is a simple psychosis of a presentative character. According to both, an illusion is produced by a sense-organ vitiated by a certain derangement in co-operation with a subconscious impression revived by the perception of similarity. They do not differ in their psychological analysis of an illusion, though they differ in their epistemological and metaphysical doctrines of illusion, which we shall consider later on.
Illusion (viparyaya) and Doubtful Perception (samsaya]
Udayana says that both an illusion (viparyaya) and a doubtful perception (samsaya) are not produced by the corresponding objects (anarthaja) ; but the former is definite (mkayatmaka} while the latter is indefinite (anise ay atmaka}. An illusion is a false perception of a definite character in the waking condition.
Jayanta Bhatta points out that an illusion differs from a doubtful perception both in its nature and in its origin. Firstly, in an illusion one object is definitely perceived as another object, e.g. a post as aman, or a man as a post ; while in a doubtful perception the mind wavers between two alternatives, sometimes touching the one, and sometimes touching the other. Thus an illusion is a definite, false perception, while a doubtful perception is an indefinite, or un- certain, false perception. Secondly, an illusion springs from the recollection of the peculiar qualities of one object (e.g. silver, or water) which is suggested by the perception of the common quality in another object (e.g. nacre, or the rays of the sun) while a doubtful perception springs from the recollection of the peculiar qualities of two objects (e.g. a post and a man) which are suggested by the perception of their common quality (e.g. tallness).
References
History of Indian Logic, by S. C. Vidyabhusan (1921
Indian Logic and Atomism , by A. B. Keith (1921).
Kiranavall of Udayana (Benares, 1885 and 1887).
Nyayatltparyadipika of Jayasimhasuri (B.I., 1910)
Nylyamanjari of Jayanta. (V.S.S., Benares, 1895).
Nyayakandali of Srldhara (V.S.S., Benares, 1895).