Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D.
Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India
Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed.
Former Principal, A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India
The term model is used to mean a teaching episode done by an experienced teacher in which a highly focussed teaching behaviour is demonstrated, in it an individual demonstrating particular patterns which the trainee learns through imitation. It is a way to talk and think about instruction in which certain facts may be organized, classified and interpreted.
Bruce Joyce and Marsha Weil describe a Model of Teaching as a plan or pattern that can be used to shape curricula, to design instructional materials and to guide instruction in the classroom and other settings.
Thus teaching models are just instructional designs. They describe the process and producing particular environmental situations which cause the student to interact in such a way that specific change occurs in his behaviour.
.According to N.K.Jangira and Azit Singh (1983): “A model of teaching is a set of inter-related components arranged in a sequence which provides guidelines to realize specific goal. It helps in designing instructional activities and environmental facilities, carrying out of these activities and realization of the stipulated objectives.”
Models of Teaching are designed for specific purposes-the teaching of information concepts, ways of thinking, the study of social values and so on-by asking students to engage in particular cognitive and social tasks. Some models centre on delivery by the instructor while others develop as the learners respond to tasks and the student is regarded as a partner in the educational enterprise.
These are based on the following specifications:
a-Specification of Environment- It specifies in definite terms the environmental conditions under which a student’s response should be observed.
b- Specification of operation- It specifies the mechanism that provides for the reaction of students and interaction with the environment.
c- Specification of criterion of Performance-It specify the criterion of Performance which is accepted by the students The behavioural outcome which the learner would demonstrate after completing specific instructional sequences are delineated in the teaching models
d- Specification of learning outcome- It specifies what the student will perform after completing an instructional sequence.
Effects of teaching by modelling
Models of Teaching are really models of learning. As we helps students acquire information ideas skills, values, ways of thinking, and means of expressing themselves, we are also teaching them how to learn . ln fact the most important long term outcome of instruction may be the students ‘increased capabilities to learn more easily and effectively in the future ,both because of the knowledge and skills they have acquired and because they have mastered learning processes.
According to Joyce and Weil, Each model results in two types of effects Instructional and Nurturant.
A- Instructional effects are the direct effects of the model which result from
the content and skills on which the activities are based.
B- Nurturant effects are those which are implicit in the learning environment.
They are the indirect effects of the model.
Bandura and Walters have formulated three kind of effect in teaching by modelling:
1- Modelling effect- The learner acquires new kind of response pattern.
2- -Inhibitory and disinhibitory effect- The learner increases or decreases the frequent, latency or intensity or previously required responses.
3- Eliciting effect- The learner receives from a model merely a cue for realising a response.
Modelling effect can be seen when a teacher demonstrates to a student how to hold a pencil or write capital A and thus shows a new behaviour. Through modelling the teacher lets the student know that it is not permissible of obscene nature in art book. The eliciting effect takes place when through modelling; a teacher tries to teach students to get up when he enters the room. Thus it provide a cue eliciting a response neither new nor inhibited. Gagne feels that learning through imitation seems to be more appropriate for tasks which are a little cognitive in nature.
Utility of Teaching Models in Teaching
- Teaching models are useful in developing social efficiency, personal abilities, cognitive abilities and behavioural aspects of the students. It helps in selecting and stimulating situations which causes the desirable changes in students
- Teaching models help to establish teaching and learning relationship empirically. It helps in making the teaching more effective.
- Teaching models helps in providing a theoretical rationale to the teaching, which will provide changes and rectifications in teaching.
- Teaching models stimulates the development of new educational innovations in teaching strategies and tactics, which may replace the existing ones in schools of today.
- Teaching models assist makers of materials to create more interesting and effective instructional materials and learning sources.
- Teaching models assist teachers to develop their capacities to create conductive environment for teaching, as its nature is practical.
- Teaching models help curriculum planners to plan learning activities and content material which provide a variety of educational experiences to learners.
- Teaching model evaluates the behaviour of the students. For this important task, it presents such a criterion with the help of which the changes in the students behaviours can be easily evaluated.
Characteristics of a Teaching model
1- Encourage Art of Teaching- Teaching is considered as an art.. Teaching models encourages this art by providing learning environment.
2- Development of Inherent Abilities -Teaching models bring about the qualitative development of personality as it helps in developing human abilities. It also increases the teacher’s social competency.
3- Based on Individual Differences- Teaching model uses the student’s interest, as it is constructed on the basis of individual differences.
4- Influenced by Philosophy- Every teaching model is influenced by the philosophy of education. Hence, teachers formulate different models of teaching under the influence of the philosophy they believe.
5- Answers Fundamental Questions- In every teaching model answers to all the fundamental questions pertaining to the behaviour of students and teachers are included.
6- Providing Appropriate Experiences- Teaching models provides proper experiences to both teacher and student. Selecting the content and presenting it for learning before the students is the main essentiality of teaching. This difficulty is solved when a teacher presents appropriate experience before the students.
7- Maxims of Teaching- The basis of teaching model is the maxims of teaching. They are the foundation of each teaching model.
8- Practice and Concentration- The development of a teaching model is based on regular and continuous practice and concentration. The proper development of a teaching model is only possible when the assumptions are made clear by related thinking.
Fundamental Elements of a Teaching Model:
Normally majority of teaching models are based on the following six elements:
Focus
Focus is the central aspects of a teaching model. Objectives of teaching and aspects of environment generally constitute the focus of the model. Every teaching model is based on one or the other objective as its focal point. Any teaching model is developed by keeping this focal point in mind. Every teaching model differs from another in terms of its objectives. It is the nucleus of a teaching model. Every model is developed by keeping in view its focal point or objective . Every model has various phases, some particular types of competencies are developed by it.
Syntax
Syntax of the model describes the model in action. Syntax includes the sequences of steps involved in the organization of the complete programmed of teaching. It is the systematic sequence of the activities in the model. Each model has a distinct flow of phases. It means the detailed description of the model in action. In it, the teaching activities and interactions between a pupil and the teacher are determined .The syntax of any teaching model means those points which produce activities focused on educational objectives at various phases. Under syntax, the teaching tactics, teaching activities and interaction between a student and the teacher are determined in such a pattern of sequence that the teaching objectives are achieved conveniently by providing desirable environmental situations.
Principles of Reaction
Principles of Reaction tell the teacher how to regard the learner and to respond to what the learner does. This element is concerned with the way a teacher should regard and aspects respond to the activities of the students. These responses should be appropriate and selective. They provide the teacher with rules of thumb by which to select model, appropriate responses to what the student does. This element is concerned with the teacher’s reaction to the students responses. In it,he comes to know that how he has to react to the responses of the students and has to see whether the learners have been actively involved in the process, or not.
The Social System
This element is concerned with the activities of pupil and the teacher and their mutualrelationships. Every teaching model has separate objectives and will have therefore separate social systems. It is related with the interactive roles and relationship between the teacher and the student, and the kinds of norms that are observed and student behaviour which is rewarded. The Social System describes the role of and relationships between the teacher and the pupils. In some models the teacher has a dominant role to play. In some the activity is centred around the pupils, and in some other models the activity is equally distributed. This element is based on the assumption that every class is a miniature society. In it also discussed the selection of motivating strategies and tectics for the students. Naturally social system occupies a central position in making the teaching impressive and successful in relation to the previously selected objectives. .
Support system
Support System describes the supporting conditions required to implement the model. ‘Support’ refers to additional requirements beyond the usual human skills, capacities and technical facilities. The support system relates to the additional requirements other than the usual human skills or capacities of the teacher and the facilities usually available in the ordinary classroom. Teacher requirements refer to special skills, special knowledge of the teacher and special audio-visual material like films, elf-instructional material, visit to special place etc.This includes books, films, laboratory kits, reference materials etc. It means the additional requirements beyond the usual human skill, capacities and technical facilities. In it, the evaluation is done by oral or written examination, whether the teaching objectives have been achieved or not. On the basis of this success or failure, clear idea is achieved regarding the effectiveness of strategies, tactics and techniques used during teaching.
Application
It is an important element of a teaching model. It means the utility or usage of the learnt material in other situations. Several types of teaching modes are available. Each model attempts to desirable the feasibility of its use in varying contexts related with goal achievements in terms of cognitive, and affective behaviour modification.
Types of Teaching Models:
Every teaching model has its specific objective. In order to achieve the objective of a teaching model, the teacher has to choose right type of model for achieving the particular objective. The teaching models have been classified into three main types:
1. Philosophical teaching models: Israel Saffer had mentioned such types of models. These include
A- The Insight model (Plato).-The insight model discard the assumption that the meaning of of a teaching model is merely deliver the knowledge or ideas through teaching to the mental domain of the students. According to this model the knowledge can not be provided merely through the expression of sence organs, but the knowlnd principles of language are most important.edge of the content is also a necessity. The knowledge can not be provided merely by speaking the words or listening them. Mental processes and language both work together.
B- The Impression model of teaching (John Locke).-It is based on a general assumption the the child’s brain is like a clean slate at the time of birth. Whatever experiences are provided through teaching, creates impression on child’s brain. These impressions are termed as learning. In the learning process the sense organs .
C- The Rule model ( Kant)-In this model much importance is given to the logic. Kant gives importance to logic, because in it following certain rules is essential. The objective of rule model is to devlop the logical reasoning capacities of the student. Some particular rules are followed. Planning, organisation and interaction of teaching is performed under specific rules.
2- Psychological model of teaching: John P. Dececco had mentioned such types of models. It includes
A- Basic Teaching model (Robert Glaser)- Robert Glaser (1962) has developed a stripped-down teaching model which, with modifications, is the basic teaching model. The basic teaching model divides the teaching process into four components or parts. It will be useful in several ways.. The four parts of the model represent the basic divisions. Instructional objectives, Entering behavior, instructional procedure, and finally performance assessment.
B- An Interaction model of teaching (N.A. Flander).- Flander considered teaching process as an interaction process. He divided class-room behaviour in ten categories known as Flander’s ten category system. In this model the behaviour of student and teacher is analysed. An interaction between a teacher and the student is more emphasised in this model.
C-Computer based teaching model ( Daniel Davis )-It is the most complicated model having , entering behaviour, determination of objectives and teaching aspect as fundamental elements. In this element computer teaching plan is selected according to the entering behaviour and instructional objectives. The performances of the student are evaluated. Accordingly alternative teaching plan is presented. In this model, the diagnosis and teaching go side by side. Remedial teaching is provided on the basis of diagnosis .Individual differences are also given importance.
3- Modern teaching models (Joyce and Weil)
Eggen, Kauchar and Harder (1979) have discussed six Information Processing Models –
- General Inductive Model,
- Concept Attainment Model,
- Taba Model,
- General Deductive Model,
- Ausubel’s Model and
- Such man’s Inquiry Model.
Modern teaching models
The most comprehensive review of teaching models is that of Joyce and Weil (1980). Bruce R.Joyce has divided all the teaching models under the title “Modern teaching models”. They identified 23 models which are classified into four basic families based on the nature, distinctive characteristics and effects of the models. These four families are :
1. information Processing Models
2. Personal Models
3. Social Interaction Models and
4. Behaviour Modification Models.
Within the families, there are specific models which are designed to serve particular purposes.
Information Processing Models
The models of this type are concerned with the intellectual development of the individual and help to develop the method of processing information from the environment. These models focus on intellectual capacity. They are concerned with the ability of the learner to observe, organise data, understand information, form concepts, employ verbal and nonverbal symbols and solve problems. The primary purposes are :
1. The mastery of methods of inquiry
2. The mastery of academic concepts and facts
3. The development of general intellectual skills such as the ability to reason and think more logically
The models which belong to this family are :
a. The Concept Attainment Model
b. Inquiry Training Model
c. The Advance Organiser Model
d. Cognitive Growth Development Model
e. Biological Science Inquiry Model
Brief Review of the Information Processing Source Models
| SOURCE | TEACHING MODEL | INNOVATOR | AIMS AND APPLICATION |
| The Information Processing Source | 1-Concept Attainment Model
2-Inductive Model |
Bruner, Hilda Taba | To develop inductive reasoning, mental inductive process, and understanding of concepts and principles. |
| Inquiry Training Model | Richard Suchman | To develop individual competencies to achieve the social objective. | |
| Biological Science Inquiry Model | Joseph J. Schwab | To develop understanding of research methodology, to think logically on social problems. | |
| Advance Organizational Model | David Asubel | To understand concepts and facts and to make the content purposeful and interesting. | |
| Cognitive Growth Developmental Model | Jean Piaget | To develop general intelligence and logic,social and moral development. |
II. Personal Models
Personal development models assist the individual in the development of selfhood, they focus on the emotional life an individual,.
The emphasis of these models is on developing an individual into an integrated, confident and competent personality. They attempt to help students understand themselves and their goals, and to develop the means for educating themselves. Many of the personal models of teaching have been developed by counsellors, therapists and other persons interested in stimulating individual’s creativity and self expression.
The primary goals are :
- To increase the student’s self worth,
- To help students understand themselves more fully.
- To help students recognise their emotions and become more aware of the way emotions effect other aspects of their behaviour,
- To help them develop goals for learning,
- To help students develop plans for increasing their competence,
- To increase the students’ creativity and playfulness,
- To increase the students’ openness to new experience.
The models which belong to this family are :
a. Non-Directive Teaching Model,
b. Synectics Teaching Model,
c. Awareness Training Model,
d. Classroom Meeting Model.
e-Conceptual System Model
Brief Review of The Personal Source Models
| SOURCE | TEACHING MODEL | INNOVATORS | AIMS AND APPLICATION |
| The Personal Source | Non-Directive Teaching Model, | Carl Rogers | To develop self learning by auto instructions, self research and self understanding |
| Synectics Teaching Model, | William Gordon | To develop creative competencies for problem solving. | |
| Awareness Training Model, | W.S. Fietz | To develop individual competencies and mutual relations. | |
| Classroom Meeting Model. | William Glasser | To develop skills of self –understanding and capacities of dutifulness. | |
| Conceptual System Model | David. F. Hunt | To adjust with the environment with flexibility in the personality. |
Ill. Social Interaction Models
The models in this family emphasise the relationships of the individual to the society or other persons. The core objective is to help students learn to work together. to identify and solve problems, either academic or social in nature.
The primary goals are :
To help students work together to identify and solve problems
- To develop skills to human relations, and
- To become aware of personal and social values.
The models which belong to this family are :
a. Group Investigation Model,
b. Role Playing Model,
c. Jurisprudential Inquiry Model,
d. Laboratory Training Model,
e. Social Simulation Model,
f. Social Inquiry Model.
Brief review of The Social Interaction Source Models
| SOURCE | TEACHING MODEL | INNOVATOR | AIMS AND APPLICATION |
| The Social Interaction Source | Group Investigation Model | John Dewey, Herbert | To develop democratic abilities, use of knowledge and skills in life of individual and society. |
| Jurisprudential Model | Donald Oliver, James P. Shaver | To solve problems on the basis of information and reasoning power. | |
| Social Inquiry Model
Social Simulation Model, Role Playing Model.
|
Benjamin Cox, Byron | To develop competencies of problem solving and adjustment | |
| Laboratory Method Model | Bethal, Maine | To develop group skills individual capacities and adjustment. |
IV. Behaviour Modification Model
All the models in this family share a common theoretical base, a body of knowledge which referred to as behaviour theory. The common thrust of these models is the emphasis on changing the visible behaviour of the learner.
The models which belong to this family is Operant Conditioning Model
Brief Review of The Behaviour Modification Source Model
| SOURCE | TEACHING MODEL | INNOVATORS | AIMS AND APPLICATION |
| Behaviour Modification Source | Operant Conditioning Model | B.F.Skinner | To achieve the objectives of lower level of cognitive domain on the basis of individual differances |
A number of instructional strategies to realise different instructional goals have been developed recently by different researchers They have transformed existing knowledge in the learning and teaching processes into ‘Models of Teaching’ which can be used by teachers in the teaching, learning process for realising different instructional objectives. There is a need to incorporate a few ‘Models of Teaching’ in the curriculum of teacher education programme at the secondary as well as elementary level so that prospective teachers attain a higher degree of ‘ability to teach’.