Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A(Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D
Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V. (P.G) College, Roorkee, India
From the Vedic age downwards the main conception of education of the Indians has been that it is a source of illumination that gives a correct lead in the various spheres of life. Knowledge, is the third eye of man, which gives him insight into all affairs and teaches him how to act. As per classical Indian tradition “Sa vidya ya vimuktaye”, (that which liberates us is education). He who is possessed of supreme knowledge by concentration of mind, must have his senses under control, like spirited steeds controlled by a charioteer.” says the Katha Upanishad .
An aim is a foreseen end that gives direction to an activity or motivates behaviour. Aims are guide-lines in the educational process. Like the sun, aims illumine our life. All our methods of teaching, our curriculum and our system of evaluation are shaped and molded according to our aim of education. It is the ignorance of right aims that has vitiated our educational system, its methods and its products, and has successfully resulted in the physical, intellectual and moral weaknesses of the race.
Aims of education are always influenced by the philosophy of life of the people of that country. . An education without the knowledge of aims, objective and goals of education is like a sailor navigating a ship without the knowledge of destination and the route. So, aims are a must for education and need to be laid down explicitly.
Besides, political ideologies, the social economic problems of a country, determine the aims of education. Education is vital force, which can silently; bury the socio-economic problems. It can thus evolve a society based on equality, co-operation and socialistic ideals.
Cultural heritage of a country also determine the aims of education. It is the most important function of the education to develop and preserve the cultural heritage. The changing and developing pattern of cultural factors directly influence the aims of education.
It would be interesting to compare the aims and ideals of ancient Indian education with those of some other systems, like ancient and modern, or eastern and western. We therefore now proceed to do so.
Formation of Character:
The illumination and power, which men and women received from education, was primarily intended to transform and ennoble their nature. The formation of character by the proper development of the moral feeling was an important aim of education. Like Locke, ancient Indian thinkers held that mere intellectual attainments were of less consequence than the development of a proper moral feeling and character. The Vedas being held as revealed, educationalists naturally regarded their preservation as of utmost national importance; yet they unhesitatingly declare that a person of good character with a mere smattering of the Vedic knowledge is to be preferred to a scholar, who though well versed in the Vedas, is impure in his life, thoughts and habits. Montaigne has observed, “Cry out, ‘there is a learned man’ and people will flock round him.”; cry out ‘there is a good man’, and people will not look at him.” Indian thinkers were aware of this natural human tendency and wanted to counteract it by pointing out that character was more important than learning. One thinker goes to the extent of saying that he alone is learned who is righteous. This opinion tallies remarkably with that of Socrates, who held that virtue is knowledge. Evil effects of divorcing power from virtue, intellectual and scientific progress from moral and spiritual values, which are being so vividly illustrated in the west in the modern age, were well realized by ancient Indians ; they have therefore insisted that, while a man is being educated, his regard for morality ought to be developed, his feeling of good will towards human beings ought to be strengthened and his control over his mind ought to be perfected, so that he can follow the beacon light of his conscience.
In other words, education ought to develop man’s ideal nature by giving him a enabling him to control the original animal nature. The tree of education ought to flower, in knowledge as well as in manners, in wisdom as well as in virtue.
Direct injunctions to develop a sense of moral rectitude were scattered -over almost every page of books intended for students; they were also orally given to them by their teachers every now and then. Apart from them, however, the very atmosphere in which students lived was intended to give a proper turn to their character. They were under the direct and personal supervision of their teacher, who was to watch not only their intellectual progress but also their moral behavior. Ancient Indians held that good character cannot be divorced from good manners; the teacher was to see that in their everyday life students followed the rules of etiquette and good manners towards their seniors, equals and juniors. These rules afforded an imperceptible but effective help in the formation of character. The rituals compare the view of Herbert: The aim of education should be to install such ideas as will develop both the understanding of the moral order and a conscientious spirit in carrying it out. Great Educationalists, which students occasionally performed and the prayers which they regularly offered every day were calculated to emphasize upon their mind the fact that the student-life was a consecrated one and that its ideals could be realized only by those who did not swerve from the strict and narrow path of duty. Examples of national heroes and heroines were prominently placed before students, also served to mold their character in a powerful manner. Character was thus built up partly by the influence of direct injunctions, partly by the effect of continued discipline and partly by the glorification of national heroes, hold in the highest reverence by society.
Infusion of Religiousness:
Learning in India through the ages had been prized and pursued not for its own sake, if we may so put it, but for the sake, and as a part, of religion. Religious factor also influence the aims of education. Education and religion have close relationship. They affect society in different ways. Religion played a large part in life in ancient India and teachers were usually .priests. It is therefore no wonder that infusion of a spirit of piety and religiousness in the mind of the rising generation should have been regarded as the first and foremost aim of education. The rituals which were performed at the beginning of both the literary and professional education, primary as well as higher, the- religious observances (vratas), which the student had to observe during the educational course, the daily prayers which he offered morning and evening, the religious festivals that were observed with in the school or the preceptor’s house almost every month, all these tended to inspire piety and religiousness in the mind of the young student. It was the spiritual background that was thus provided which was expected to help the student to withstand the temptations of life. The very atmosphere, in which he lived and breathed, impressed upon him the reality of the spiritual world and made him realize that though his body may be a product of nature, his mind r intellect and soul belong to the world of spirit, the laws- of which ought to govern his conduct, mould his character and determine the ideals of his life.
Though the educational system provided the background of piety and religiousness, its aim was not to induce the student to renounce the world and become a wanderer in the quest of God like the Buddha. Even in the case of Vedic students, who intended to follow a religious career, only a microscopic minority used to remain lifelong Brahmachariris, pursuing the spiritual quest: the vast majority was expected to become and did become householders. The direct aim of all education, whether literary or professional, was to make the student fit to become a useful member of society.
Development of Personality:
There is a general impression that Hindu educationalists suppressed personality by prescribing a uniform course of education and enforcing it with an iron discipline. Such however was not the case. The caste system had not become hidebound down to c. 500 B.C. and till that time a free choice of profession or career was possible both in theory and practice. Later on when the system became rigid ; the theory” no doubt was that everybody should follow his hereditary profession, but the practice permitted considerable freedom to enterprising individuals, as will be shown in the following chapter. It is wrong to conclude from some stray passages that the whole of the Brahmana community, if not the whole of the Aryan community, was compelled to devote twelve years to the task of memorizing the Vedic texts. Kshatriyas and Vaishyas never took seriously to the Vedic learning; only a section of the Brahmanas dedicated themselves to the Vedic studies, while the rest of the community learnt only a few Vedic hymns necessary for their daily use, and devoted their main energy to the study of the subjects of their own choice like logic, philosophy, literature, poetic or law. The educational curriculum of the Smritis represents the Utopian idealism of the Brahmana theologian and not the actual reality in society.
The development of personality was in fact the most important aim of the education. This was sought to be realized by eulogizing the feeling of self -respect, by encouraging the sense of self -restraint and by fostering the powers of discrimination and judgment. The student was always to remember that he was the custodian and the torch-bearer of the culture of the race. Its welfare depended upon his proper discharge of his duties. If the warrior shines on the battlefield, or if the king is successful as a governor, it is all due to their proper training and education .To support the poor student was the sacred duty of society, the non- performance of which would lead to dire spiritual calamities. A well trained youth, who had finished his education, was to be honored more than the king himself. It is but natural that such an atmosphere should develop the student’s self-respect in a remarkable manner.
Fostering of Self-confidence:
Self-confidence was also fostered equally well. The Upanayana ritual, as used to foster self- confidence by pointing out that divine powers would co- operate with the student and help him on to the achievement of his goal, if he on his part did his duty well. Poverty need not depress him ; he was the ideal student who would subsist by begging his daily food. If he was willing to work in his spare time, he could demand and get free education from any teacher or institution. Self -restraint is the mother of self-confidence, and the Hindu educational system seeks to develop it in a variety of ways. Uncertainty of the future prospect did not damp the student’s self-confidence. If he was following a professional course, his career was already determined. There was no overcrowding or cut-throat competition in professions. If he was taking religious and liberal education, poverty was to be the ideal of his life.
Enforcement of Self-restraint:
The element of self-restraint was emphasized by the educational system, further served to enrich the student’s personality. Self-restraint that was emphasized was distinctly different from self-repression. Simplicity in life and habits was all that was insisted upon. The student was to have a full meal, only it was to be a simple one. The student was to have sufficient clothing, only it was not to be foppish. The student was to have his recreations, only they were not to be frivolous. He was to lead a life of perfect chastity, but that was only to enable him to be an efficient and healthy householder when he married. It will be thus seen that what the educationalists aimed at did not result in self- repression, but only promoted self-restraint that was so essential for the development of a proper personality. Nor was this self-restraint enforced by Spartan ways of correction and punishment. The teacher was required to use persuasion and spare the rod as far as possible. He was liable to be prosecuted if he used undue force. Self-discipline was developed mainly by the formation of proper habits during the educational course.
Development of power of Discrimination and Judgment
It may be further pointed out that the powers of discrimination and judgment, so necessary for the development of proper personality, were well developed in students taking liberal education and specializing in logic, law, philosophy, poetic or literature. In these branches of study the student had to understand both the sides, form his own judgment and defend his position in literary debates. It was only with the Vedic students that education became mechanical training of memory.
This became inevitable in later times when the literature to be preserved became very extensive and the modern,; means for its preservation in the form of paper and printing were unavailable. In earlier days even Vedic students were trained in interpreting the hymns they used to commit to memory.
Inculcation of civic and social duties:
This might be considered another old school belief. However, this is held by many individuals, especially within the larger community. Students will someday be a part of a larger community and need the skills and mores to exist within that society as thoughtful citizens.. The inculcation of civic and social duties, which was the fourth aim of the educational system, was particularly emphasized. The graduate was not to lead a self-centered life. He must teach his lore to the rising generation even when there was no prospect of a fee. He was enjoined perpetuation of race and culture by raising and educating progeny.
He was to perform his duties as a son, a husband, and a father conscientiously and efficiently. His wealth was not to be utilized solely for his own or his family’s wants; he must be hospitable and charitable, particularly emphatic are the words in the convocation address, emphasizing these duties. Professions had their own codes of honor, which laid stress on the civic responsibilities of their members. The physician was required to relieve disease and distress even at the cost of his life. The warrior had his own high code of honor, and could attack his opponent only when the latter was ready. Social structure in ancient India was to a great extent independent of government. Governments may come and go, but social arid village life and national culture were not much v affected by these changes. It was probably this circumstance that was responsible for the non-inclusion of patriotism among the civic duties, inculcated by the Educational System.
Promotion of Social Efficiency and Happiness:
The promotion of social efficiency and happiness was another aim of the education. It was sought to be realized by the proper training of the rising generation in the different branches of knowledge, professions and industries. Education was not imparted merely for the sake of culture or for the purpose of developing mental and intellectual powers and faculties. Indirectly, though effectively, it no doubt promoted these aims, but primarily it was imparted for the purpose of training every individual for the calling which he was expected to follow.
Society had accepted the theory of division of work, which was mainly governed in later times by the principle of heredity. Exceptional talent could always select the profession it liked; Brahmanas and Vaishyas as kings and fighters, Kshatriyas and even Shudras as philosophers and religious teachers, make their appearance throughout the Indian history. It was however deemed to be in the interest of the average man that he should follow his family’s calling. The educational system sought to qualify the members of the rising generation for their more or less pre-determined spheres of life. Each trade, guild and family trained its children in its own profession. This system may have sacrificed the individual inclinations of few, but it was undoubtedly in the interest of many.
Differentiation of functions and their specialization in hereditary families naturally heightened the efficiency of trades and professions, and thus contributed to social efficiency. By thus promoting the progress of the different branches of knowledge, arts and professions, and by emphasizing civic duties and responsibilities on the mind of the rising generation, the educational system contributed materially to the general efficiency and happiness of society.
Preservation of Culture:
The preservation and spread of national heritage and culture another most important aims of the Ancient Indian System of Education. It is well recognised that education is the chief means of social and cultural continuity and that it will fail in its purpose if it did not teach the rising generation to accept and maintain the best traditions of thought and action and transmit the heritage of the past to the future generations. Anyone who takes even a cursory view of Hindu writings on the subject is impressed by the deep concern that was felt for the preservation and transmission of the entire literary, cultural and professional heritage of the race. Members of the professions were to train their children in their own lines, rendering available to the rising generation at the outset of its career all the skill and processes that were acquired after painful efforts of the bygone generations. The services of the whole Aryan community were conscripted for the purpose of the preservation of the Vedic literature. Every Aryan must learn at least a portion of his sacred literary heritage.
It was an incumbent duty on the priestly class to commit the whole of the Vedic literature to memory in order to ensure its transmission to unborn generations. A section of the Brahmana community, however, was always available to sacrifice its life and talents in order to ensure the preservation of the sacred texts. Theirs was a life-long and almost a tragic devotion to the cause of learning. For, they consented to spend their life in committing to memory what others and not they could interpret. Secular benefits that they could expect -were few and /not at all commensurate with the labour involved. Remaining sections of the Brahmana community were fostering the studies of the different branches of liberal education, like grammar, literature, poetics, law, philosophy and logic. They were not only preserving the knowledge of the ancients in these branches, but constantly increasing its boundaries by their own contributions, which were being made down to the medieval times. Specialisation became a natural consequence of this tendency and it tended to make education deep rather than broad.
The interesting theory of three debts, which has been advocated since the vedic age, has effectively served the purpose of inducing the rising generation to accept and maintain the best traditions of thought and action of the past generations born in this world he incurs three debts, which he can discharge only by performing certain duties. First of all he owes a debt to gods, and he can liquidate it only by learning how to perform proper sacrifices and by regularly offering them. Religious traditions of the race thus preserved. Secondly, he owes a debt to the savants of the bygone ages and can discharge it only by studying their works and continuing their professional traditions. The rising generation we thus enabled to master and maintain the best literary and professional traditions. The third debt was the debt to the ancestors, which can be repaid only by raising progeny and by imparting proper education to it Steps were thus take to see that the rising generation became an efficient torch-bearer of the culture and traditions of the past.
The emphasis laid on obedience to parents, respect to elders and teachers and gratitude to savants of the bygone ages also helped to preserve the best traditions of the past. Especially significant in this connection are the rules about svddhyaya and nshitarparia ; the former enjoin a daily recapitulation of at least a portion of what was learnt during the student life and the latter require a daily tribute of gratitude to be paid to the literary giants of the past at the time of morning prayers. In later times, when archaic Sanskrit ceased to be understood and abstract and abstruse philosophy failed to appeal to masses, a new type of literature, the Puranas, was composed to popularise national culture and traditions among the masses. It was daily expounded to the masses in vernaculars, and as a consequence the best cultural traditions of the past filtered down to and were preserved by even illiterate population. Devotional literature in vernacular also served the same function.
The individual’s supreme duty is thus to achieve his expansion into the Absolute, his self-fulfillment, for he is a potential God, a spark of the Divine. Education must aid in this self-fulfillment, and not in the acquisition of mere objective knowledge.
Body, mind, intellect and spirit constitute a human being; the aims and ideals of ancient Indian education were to promote their simultaneous and harmonious development. Men are social beings ; ancient Indian education not only emphasised social duties but also promoted social happiness. No nation can be called educated which cannot preserve and expand its cultural heritage. Our education enabled us to do this for several centuries.
The ideal of education has been very grand, noble and high in ancient India. Its aim, according to Herbert Spencer is the ‘training for completeness of life’ and the moulding of character of men and women for the battle of life. The history of the educational institutions in ancient India shows how old is her cultural history. It points to a long history. In the early stage it is rural, not urban. The realization of the ultimate Reality was the ideal of India. Material progress was never the end in itself but was considered as a means to the realization of the end. Apara Vidya dealing with material progress could never bring peace. From all these it appears that the aim of education was not only material progress but also spiritual growth.
British Sanskrit scholar Arthur Anthony Macdonell (1854-1930) says “Some hundreds of years must have been needed for all that is found” in her( India’s ) culture. The aim of education was at the manifestation of the divinity in men, it touches the highest point of knowledge. In order to attain the goal the whole educational method is based on plain living and high thinking pursued through eternity.
REFERANCES:
Radha Kumud Mookerji :Ancient Indian Education -
A. S. Altekar Education in Ancient India -
Swami Tattwananda: Ancient Indian Culture at a Glance -
Benoy Kumar Sarkar: Creative India
Gurumurthy. S: Education in South India
Radha Kumud Mookerji : Hindu Civilization –