Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D
Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V. (P.G) College, Roorkee, India
The ancient Indian education is spread over several centuries and therefore considerable changes taking place in the curricula in the course of millennia. As the curriculum is intimately connected with the achievements, aspirations, and people outlook on life changes and new areas of knowledge are developed, changes become inevitable in the curriculum.
EARLY VEDIC AGE (C. upto 1500 B. C.)
Vedic studies usually began at about the age of nine or ten and Initiation Ceremony known as Upanayana was performed at their commencement .Students were required to master the principles of prosody and encouraged to develop the powers of versification. Those who intended to follow the priestly profession had to study the details of the rituals associated with the hymns they had committed to memory. Besides the sacred hymns, there were also some historical poems, ballads and hero-songs in existence, which were also committed to memory by the young scholars, of the day, as they often helped the elucidation of many references contained in the Vedic hymns. The Vedic literature naturally formed the main topic of study in this period The study of elementary geometry, the knowledge of which was necessary for the proper construction of sacrificial altars, was also included in the Vedic course. A knowledge of astronomy,, which had enabled the age to find out the difference between the lunar and solar months, was also imparted. Grammar and etymology did not trouble the students of this age because they were yet to be developed.
The Method of Study :
Vedic hymns were studied in this period as specimens of literature to be understood, appreciated, imitated and even excelled. New hymns were being composed .It is interesting to note that some of the poems of the later poets were selected for inclusion in the Vedic collection when it was made in a subsequent age. As new hymns were being composed by contemporary authors, they were not yet regarded as revealed. It was therefore not at all felt necessary that they should be committed to memory so meticulously. Professional priests must of course have committed the hymns very thoroughly to memory in order to ensure facility in their use during the performance of the different rituals. More effort was made to understand the meaning of the hymns than to remember their exact wording. But the mass of people consisting of the warriors, agriculturists and artisans used to learn by heart only some select Vedic hymns, and these too in the same way in which the songs of medieval saints are memorized by the Hindu masses today.
LATER VEDIC AGE (C. 1500 to 1000 B. C.)
A large number of the Vedic hymns was classified in this period and as a result, the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda came into existence. This led to specialisation in Vedic studies and facilitated the growth of a new type of literature, known as Brahmana literature. Sacrificial rituals became very complex and complicated in this period and the professional priests had to devote several years in mastering their details and intricacies. The study of astronomy, geometry and prosody continued to progress in this period. The development of the sciences of grammar and etymology started in this age and manuals on these subjects were included in the curriculum.
The Method of Study:
Learned discussions were a normal and important feature of the student life and young scholars were very anxious to come out successful in them. Scholars of this period began to insist that Vedic hymns should be carefully committed to memory in their precise traditional intonation and accents. The Vedic hymns were being gradually differentiated from the Vedic language and it was felt that the sacred literature should be preserved in its pristine form and purity, and should not be allowed to change with the spoken idiom.
Students were not at liberty to change a difficult archaic word for a simple current one. The differentiation of the spoken dialect from the Vedic language raised new problems of interpretation and the age sought to solve them by preparing a list of difficult Vedic words and expressions, which were carefully expounded to students. Vedic students were expected not only to memorizethe Vedic hymns, but also to explain their meaning.
THE AGE OF THE UPANISHADS AND THE SUTRAS (First millennium B. C.)
The Vedic literature began to be universally regarded as revealed in this period and that honour was gradually extended to the Brahmanas and the Upanishads also.( The prose literature devoted to the task of explaining the rituals, legends and knotty points about the sacrifices enjoined in the Vedic hymns was known by this name. It should not be mistaken with the members of the Brahmanan caste.). Vedic schools had to perform the onerous task of preserving this great and growing literature. The art of writing was known by this time, but its aid was not taken for this purpose, as it was believed that it would be irreligious to do so. It was believed that the slightest mistake in the recitation of the Vedic hymns would not only prevent the realisation of the expected reward, but would also bring about a disaster on the student who recites , gained ground in this period and necessitated the devotion of a large part of the energy .Extraordinary precautions were taken to prevent the corruption of the Vedic text by devising the pada-patha, krama-patha, jaat-patha and ghana-patha, and all these had to be committed to memory by those who desired to be regarded as experts in the Vedic lore. This further increased the burden on the memory. As centuries rolled on, it became more and more difficult for the Vedic expert to memorize this extensive and growing literature and also to understand its meaning ; for the spoken dialect was becoming more and more differentiated from the Vedic language. It was therefore decided towards the end of this period that some Vedic scholars should devote their energies to the mechanical memorizing of this extensive literature with a view to prevent its loss, while others should address themselves to the problem of its interpretation by studying commentaries, etymology, lexicography, etc.
The current language had now become very widely differentiated from the Vedic idiom and thus created a new difficulty in the Vedic studies. As a combined effect of all these factors, Vedic studies fell into background towards the end of this period and greater attention began to be paid to the cultivation of the new branches of learning.
The period was the most creative era in the history of the Indian intellect; it recorded remarkable achievements in the realm of philosophy, sacred law, epic literature, philology, grammar, astronomy and several fine and useful arts like sculpture, medicine and shipbuilding. On the one hand the development of these branches naturally created a new fascination for the students of the age, and on the other, the rise of the protestant movements led by the Upanishadic, Jain and Buddhist thinkers told on the popularity of the Vedic religion and literature.
Graduates of this age are usually described as well versed in the Vedas as well as in practical arts and sciences. Several references in the contemporary literature indicate that an attempt was made in this period to combine liberal with professional or useful education. These included archery, military art, medicine, magic, snake charming, conveyance, administrative training, music, dancing, painting, engineering, etc. It is of course clear that no graduate could get mastery in all the Vedas. It is however clear from some references in Jatakas that literary education was combined with one of the useful professions referred to above in the famous centres of education like Taxila.
THE AGE OF THE SMRITIS, PURANAS AND NIBANDHAS. (1st century A. D. to c. 1200 A. D.)
The Vedic studies fell into background during this period. The number of the Vedic scholars, devoting themselves to the task of interpreting and expounding Vedic hymns, dwindled down very considerably during this period. Only a small number of Brahmanas were available to preserve and transmit the Vedic literature to the generations yet to come. They used to do their work very thoroughly, for the experts among them would memorise not only the Vedic hymns, but also their pada-patha, krama-patha, and jaat-patha . Some of them used to study two, three or even four Vedas and were therefore known as Dvivedins, Trivedins, and Chaturvedins respectively. Vedic studies therefore usually meant the mere cramming of the sacred texts and were often commented upon very adversely by some thinkers of the age, some of whom went to the extent of declaring that the intellect is deadened and rendered useless by the parrot-like cramming of the Vedic hymns. Kings of this age were more disposed to extend their patronage to poets, who could compliment them by composing neat poems in their honour, than to Vedic Brahmanas, who could recite hymns, which neither they themselves nor their hearers could understand. New branches of learning like philosophy and belles letters also appealed more powerfully to the intellect and emotions of the rising generation. In spite of these adverse and discouraging factors Vaidika Brahmanas continued to address themselves to the almost thankless task of memorising the vast Vedic literature, which could not have been preserved but for their devotion to duty. They used to master the details connected with the numerous Vedic sacrifices also.
The period of Specialisation:
As the help of paper, printing and cheap books was not available for the preservation and propagation of knowledge, the age naturally emphasised on specialisation, which gave a great impetus to the development of the different branches of knowledge.
The present age made its own contribution to the march of knowledge by further developing astronomy, astrology, poetics, classical Sanskrit literature, Dharma Sastra (sacred and secular law), logic, and the different systems of orthodox and heterodox philosophy.
The revival of Sanskrit:
During the earlier centuries of this period, upto 300 A. D., some kings like the Satavahanas, the Ikshwakus and the Pallavas had championed the cause of Prakrit and directed that vernaculars alone should be used even in their official and public documents. But later on Sanskrit became so irresistible that some kings like the Guptas went to the extent of ordering the use of that language even in their harems . Prakrits ceased to be used for public documents and even the Buddhists and the Jains disregarded the advice of the founders of their religions and began to compose works in Sanskrit. All the attention of the educated classes was devoted to the cultivation of Sanskrit. This led to the neglect of vernaculars through which alone the masses could be approached, resulting the confinement of education only to higher classes.
The study of the different branches of knowledge that were flourishing in this age was preceded by a preliminary course in Sanskrit. After the Upanayana ceremony at about the the age of 8, all students used to memorise a few important Vedic hymns necessary for their daily or ceremonial needs. Then they used to devote four or five years to the study of elementary Sanskrit grammar and literature. At about the age of 13 or 14, the student used to be able to understand Sanskrit works on subjects like logic, philosophy, poetic, astronomy and mathematics. He then used to select one of these subjects for specialization and devote about ten years to its study.
Importance to Grammar and Astrology:
The students of this subject were naturally required first to complete their course in grammar and kosha (vocabulary) and then enjoined a study of some famous authors like Kalidasa, Bhartrihari or Bana. Particular attention was paid to prosody and poetics, and students were expected not only to understand the classical authors, but also to compose fairly good poems imitating their style. In order to get a general knowledge of the culture of the race, they were also required to study the epics, the Puranas and traditional stories. They were further trained to be good debaters ; the ability to defend one’s own position in learned assemblies and the capacity to compose a good poem in a very short time were regarded as the most important criteria of good scholarship.
Among the subjects cultivated during this period, the courses of advanced grammar and astronomy-cum-astrology were very popular. Every school for higher education had to engage several grammarians in order to give the necessary instructions in Sanskrit language, which was the key subject. The age believed in astrology and astrologers were in great demand throughout the country for preparing and interpreting almanacs and prognosticating future events. The royal courts also used to engage the services of several astrologers.
There was no prejudice against utilising the art of writing for preserving them.
Almost as popular as the courses in grammar and astrology were the courses in Puranas and Smritis whose hold over the popular mind during this age. Popular Hindu religion had greatly changed its complexion during this period and its theories and practices could be ascertained only from Smritis and Puranas, which therefore had to be mastered even by the village priest. The courses in these subjects prescribed a good mastery of Sanskrit grammar and classical Sanskrit literature and a special study of select Satras, Smritis and Puranas. More emphasis was laid on understanding the meaning of the works concerned than on committing them to memory. Usually the students of Smritis and Puranas took the help of a manuscript when expounding their contents.
This period was reverberating with controversies among the followers of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Within the fold of Hinduism itself, the followers of Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Mimansa and Vedanta were contending for supremacy, resulting an impetus to the study of metaphysics, epistemology and logic. After getting a preliminary grounding in grammar and literature, the students of the subject used to select one of the systems of philosophy for specialisation and master its most advanced and difficult works. The study of philosophy presupposed a study of logic during this period ; students of philosophy used to devote considerable time to the study of logic also. The young graduate in philosophy was expected not only to expound and defend his own system but also to refute those of his opponents. The course therefore included a comparative study of the contending systems of metaphysics. Hindu philosophers like Gaudapada and Sankaracharya and Buddhist scholars like Nagarjuna and Vasubandhu used to master the systems of their opponents as well. In a famous philosophical college situated in a sylvan retreat in the Vindhya mountain presided over by Divakarasena, a Brahmana convert to Buddhism,the students of Hinduism, Buddhism and Svetambara and Digambara Jainism studied together side by side under the same principal. Such an arrangement presupposes a comparative study of the rival systems leading to the broadening of the outlook and the deepening of the scholarship of the average student of the institution.
The curriculum prescribed for the monk scholar was naturally somewhat different. It did not include any special study of secular sciences like poetics, literature or astrology, but was concerned principally with theological subjects. For ten years after his admission as a novice, the monk-student was under the direct guidance and control of his preceptor, who used to initiate him in the study of Pali and Sanskrit. When these languages were properly mastered, a thorough study of the sacred texts, (the Tripltakas,) was started. Hindu systems of religion, logic and philosophy were then carefully studied in order to meet the Hindu opponent on his own ground. The education of the novice did not terminate with his admission to the Order as a full-fledged monk. For, the Buddhist monk was expected to be a lifelong student like the Hindu Naishthika Brahmacharin.
The selection of text books was usually governed by considerations of merit alone. An author had to submit his work to a synod of scholars at a famous centre of learning like Patallputra or Benares (Panini is reported to have come all the way to Pataliputra from Salatura(situated in N. W. F. P in India), in order to get his famous grammar approved by the synod at that famous capital, Sankaracharya came to Benares from Malabar in order to seek the imprimatur of the Pandits of that place over his philosophical works.) , and if it was found to be a work of merit by that body, it received its imprimatur, which helped its acceptance and spread in provincial towns. No pecuniary gain was likely to accrue to an author by his book being prescribed in several institutions ; for there was no press and copyright in ancient India. The adoption of a work as a text book in the schools of a province however increased the reputation of its author, and we sometimes come across writers adopting rather questionable means to get their books accepted. Ugrabhuti, the teacher of king Anangapala of the Punjab (c. 1010-1020) is said to have induced his royal pupil to distribute two lakhs of dirham (the local currency of that time ) among the Pandits of Kashmir in order to overcome successfully their reluctance to accept his new work on grammar. Called. Such cases however were probably few. Usually books prescribed in a particular school were those in vogue at the center where the principal and teachers of the school were educated. Hindus, Buddhists and Jains would often prefer works written by authors of their own persuasion in the case of a subject like logic, which was cultivated by all schools.
INSTRUCTIONAL METHODOLOGY
In the beginning the art of writing was unknown, and even when it was invented, it was not utilized for preserving and transmitting the Vedic literature, which for several centuries was the main course of study. It was further held as imperatively necessary that the canonical literature should be memorized in the most meticulous way ; there should be no possibility of the mistake even of a single accent. The service of the art of writing was no doubt utilized for preserving and teaching non-Vedic literature, but owing to the absence of paper and printing, books could be within the reach of the rich only. Being written on biroh leaves, they were fragile as well as costly. The average student could therefore not have his own copy of the text-book ; even the desire to possess one was regarded as a symptom of indolence. Under such circumstances, extensive use of a library was altogether impracticable, nor could the help of visual instruction through the help of charts and pictures be possible. Oral instruction was the only available method of teaching and it was the cheapest and the most accurate.
Education was for a long time imparted through the oral lesson, without the medium of a book. This method persisted in the Vedic schools even today. The method of teaching was direct and personal and not even a text-book intervened between the teacher and the student. The teacher used to pronounce only two words of the Vedic stanza at a time, which the student was asked to recite with exact intonation and accent. The number of words was reduced to one, if the expression happened to be a compound one. If the student had any difficulty in the matter, it was explained to him. When a whole verse was thus taught to one student, he was dismissed and the same process was repeated with the next one. Necessarily every student used to receive individual attention under this system.
The above method of teaching was extensively followed in other branches of learning also, no doubt with suitable modifications, when it was deemed necessary that certain texts should be memorized by the student. Small portions of the text were recited and explained by the teacher to the students ; when they had understood them, each one was required to commit them to memory. Books being both costly and fragile, there was no other efficient alternative method of study, if it was desired that students should acquire a mastery in their subjects,. which should stand them in good stead throughout their lives. Learning in ancient times had to be at the tip of the tongue ; a scholar asking for time to consult his notes or books could carry no prestige.
The highest ambition of an author of even the 12th century A. D. was, not that his work may adorn the shelves of the libraries of the learned, but that it may shine as an ornament on their neck.
Recitation and recapitulation formed an important part in the daily routine of the student life. The home-work, which the student did in his spare time, did not consist of written exercises ; it merely amounted to the recitation and recapitulation of lessons learnt already. Every day students were required to spend a part of their time in the school in jointly reciting a portion of the work they had committed to memory. As a result of this training, the memory of the average student in ancient India was very highly developed ; he could perform feats of memorizing which now we may regard as impossible.There were certain interesting aids to memory owing to which, after the practice of ten or fifteen days, the student felt ‘his thoughts rising like a fountain and could commit to memory whatever he had but once heard. ‘This is far from a myth,’ says the Chinese traveler, ‘for I have myself met such men. In an age when books were very rare, it was but meet that great emphasis should have been laid on the development of memory.
Though the memory of the average student was much better trained and developed than is the case now, the authors and educationalists left no stone upturned to lighten its burden. Ancient Indian educationalists had realized that rhyme makes an appeal to aesthetic sensibility and facilitates the task of memorizing. They therefore decided to utilise its help in the teaching, work by composing text books in verse. Even dictionaries and elementary books on grammar were composed in verse. The development of the Sotra style, where conclusions are stated in short and pithy sentences, is also due to the exigencies of the schools and colleges, the students of which had to rely more on their memory than on books and notes for recalling the contents of the works once studied by them.
It is no doubt true that some Sutra works like those on grammar and philosophy, which were committed to memory, are so cryptic as to be mostly unintelligible by themselves. They were written in that style merely to lighten the burden on the student’s memory. Their teaching was accompanied by extensive lectures, some of which used to be later embodied in commentaries.
Since early times, debates and discussions have always played an important part in the literary training of students. The Vedic literature refers to such literary combats and describes how the victors were suitably honoured.
This Vedic tradition continued throughout the later history. Sastrarthas or learned debates were constantly held in colleges where students of literature, poetic, philosophy and logic were called upon to defend their own propositions and attack those of their opponents.The training in debates made students ready-witted and developed their powers of speech.
The teaching of the important works on philosophy, logic and poetic was done through exhaustive discussions.
In these discussions there was an unravelling of the subject matter, distinctions and contra-distinctions were drawn, and an effort was made to show the reasonableness of one’s position and the errors of the opponent. The students of the various schools of orthodox and heterodox systems of religion and philosophy reading under Divakarasena used to listen to the exposition of their respective systems, deliberate on their natures, discuss their features, raise doubts on obscure themes, determine for themselves the main outlines and enter into discussion with the opponents . The same procedure have been followed in other colleges of philosophy. Reasoning and analysis formed the crux of the method of study and teaching.
Indian teachers were past masters in the art of explanation and exposition ; students from distant countries like Korea and China used to brave the dangers of the perilous journey to India, not because they wanted to learn by rote the scriptures of their religion, but because they were anxious to hear the exposition of obscure metaphysical passages which could be heard nowhere else. What Yuan Chwang valued in his Indian’ teachers was not their capacity to recite the sacred texts, but their remarkable ability in explaining obscure passages and offering illuminating suggestions on doubtful points.
The dialogue method was followed by many a philosopher, as would appear from the evidence of the Upanishads and the Buddhist Satras. It enabled the teacher to ascertain the reactions in the student’s mind to his own observations. The use of parables was often made in expounding obscure principles, as would appear from the plot of the Hitopadesa and the Patichatantra, where principles of politics are taught under the guise of telling stories about animals. The value of comparison and observation was also realized by many teachers who used to develop the power of understanding of dull students by asking them to carefully observe new facts and compare them with those already known.
Many of the commentaries are in the form of a dialogue between the teacher and the student. The earlier part advances a view such as a student may be expected to hold as plausible, the later part contains its correction or refutation, as may be done by a teacher in his lecture. Clever students were not compelled to mark time for their dull companions as under the modern system of education. The educational system ministered to the needs and individual capacity of each student. If a student was intelligent and industrious, he could finish his education much earlier than is possible in modern times. The idle and careless student had not as pleasant a prospect of a merry college life as he has in the present age.
In order to make personal supervision effective, the cooperation and help of advanced students were enlisted in the cause of education. They used to guide the studies of the juniors under the general supervision of their teachers. About the Valabhi college students, This system also obtained at Taxila ; for instance, the Kuru prince Sutasoma, who aquired proficiency earlier, was entrusted with the teaching of his brother prince, the heir apparent of Benares. Senior students at Taxila were often put in charge of their schools during the temporary absence of their teachers. This method of entrusting teaching work to brilliant students had a great educational value,
It placed a high incentive before the student world. It afforded opportunities to intelligent students to learn the art of teaching, and thus indirectly performed the same function as the Teachers Training Colleges discharge today. It increased the efficiency and decreased the cost of the school by affording intelligent and free assistance to the teacher.
EXAMINATIONS
Students could not afford to go to the class room without thorough preparation. There was a daily examination of every student and no new lesson was given until the old one was thoroughly mastered. There were no annual examinations and mass promotions at fixed intervals.
New lessons were given to students only when the teacher was satisfied after a searching oral examination that the old one was thoroughly mastered. The end of the education course was not marked by any lengthy and exhaustive examination, but by the pupil reciting and explaining the last lesson. At the end of his education the scholar was presented to the local learned assembly, where occasionally some questions were asked. This presentation took place when the Samavartana (convocation) ceremony was over. It is therefore clear that the eligibility of a student for Samavartana or receiving the degree did not depend upon the opinion of the assembly, but upon the opinion of his teacher.
RajaSekhara describes the examinations held in the royal court, and Charaka refers to heated discussions held in learned assemblies to test the relative merits of the contending physicians. Each participant in these literary affrays was anxious to prove, not that he possessed certain minimum qualifications, but that he was the best poet or physician in the land, entitled to precedence, honour and annuities from the royal court. What Charaka or Rajasekhara have in contemplation is not a routine examination, but an intellectual combat among the distinguished physicians and scholars of the age.
Passing examinations and getting degrees, which dominate the present system of education, played hardly any part in ancient India. It was not the allurement of the degrees or the prizes but the thirst of knowledge or the desire to preserve the national heritage which was the main spring of the educational effort and activity.
The absence of annual examinations with prizes and scholarships for the top boys naturally kept the element of competition within proper limits Bright and promising students were however selected as monitors and entrusted with the teaching of lower classes. So they also got their reward.
Students in ancient India had not to pass through the fiery ordeal of examinations; their lot, however, was by no means more enviable than that of the modern students. Armed with his irrevocable degree, the modern graduate can afford to forget all that he had learnt, and no one can question his competence. The scholar in ancient India could not take shelter behind the buttress of a degree. He had to keep his scholarship fresh and up-to-date, ior he was liable to be challenged at any moment for a literary affray (Sastrartha), and society used to judge his merit by the way in which he acquitted himself in such discussions. All that he had learnt, he had to keep ready at the tip of his tongue; he could neither point to his diploma nor ask for time to refer to his note-books.
It will be seen from the above discussion that the method of teaching followed in ancient India was on the whole the best suited for an age, which did not enjoy the advantages of paper and printing. It developed the powers of memory, a faculty which is being sadly neglected in modern times. It did not however encourage cramming, because the texts that were memorised were well understood by students. Reflection and analysis was also encouraged especially in the case of those students who had taken logic, philosophy, poetics or
literature. Lucid exposition was a forte of Indian teachers, for which they were well known all over Asia during the first millennium of the Christian era.