Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D
Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V. (P.G) College, Roorkee, India
Just to have a proper understanding of ancient Indian education it is desirable to get a clear picture of the educational conditions as a whole in the successive periods of ancient Indian history, as also of the contribution which the Buddhism made to educational theory and practice.
In order to take a bird’s eye view of the general condition of education in the different periods of ancient Indian history, can be divide it into four periods for the purpose of survey.
1. THE VEDIC PERIOD. (up to c. 1,000 B.C.)
2. THE UPANISHAD-S0TRA PERIOD. (c. 1000 B.C. to o. 200 B.C.)
3. THE AGE OF THE DHARMASASTRA. ( 200 B. C. to c. 500 A. D,)
4. THE AGE OF THE PURANAS AND NIBANDHAS. ( 500 A. D. 1200 A. D)
THE VEDIC PERIOD: (up to c. 1,000 B.C.)
This age marked the beginning of Indian culture literature and not much progress was made in the area of literary and scientific knowledge. Its achievements were naturally less dazzling and comprehensive than those of the succeeding age. People of this period however make progress in the realm of knowledge. They has “realized that it is the intellectual efficiency and equipment which are “”most essential for “progress in culture” and knowledge. It was emphasized that gods would be friends of only those who are wise and learned, only those only regarded as learned who could not only recite the texts but also understand and interpret them. [No distinction was made in this connection between boys and girls; the education of both received the same attention at least up to the higher stage. Ordinarily the guardian discharged his duty to teach his wards so regularly and successfully that no necessity was felt for a long time either for the professional teacher or for the public school. Secular literature was yet to be developed and so the literary course was pre-dominantly religious. People however had an open, free and inquiring mind and were eager to explore the realms of knowledge. Great emphasis was laid on the proper development of debating powers ; boys and girls who were successful in debates were highly honored. Education however did not produce mere “talkers”but transformed its recipients into man of conviction as well.
This would become quite clear from the successful manner in which the Aryans of the age spread their culture and extended their political influence. The Aryan community was a compact and homogeneous, and there was no difference in the educational level of the different classes. Priests however generally used to have specialties in literary and religious education. Warriors and agriculturists also received some literary education but it was not so deep or wide as that of priests or the poets. They used to devote the great part of their educational course in mastering the art of war and processes of agriculture or of arts and crafts. The educational system of the age was successful in forming character, developing personality, promoting the progress of different of knowledge and achieving social efficiency.
THE UPANISHAD-SOTRA PERIOD. (c. 1000 B.C. to o. 200 B.C.)
This period, can be regarded as the most creative period of Hindu culture, literature and arts and sciences. The foundations of whatever is the best in Hindu culture” and glorious In Hindu achievements were laid down during this period. Metaphysics_made remarkable progress, as is evidenced by Upanishadic, Jain and Buddhist works ; Speculations in the sphere of political thought were original and fruitful.” Astronomy and mathematics, medicine and surgery, mining and metatallurgy began to be cultivated and sculpture and architecture recorded remarkable progress, especially towards the end of the period. Effort was also made to popularize culture and knowledge by transforming the epic of the Maha-Bharata war into an encyclopedia of religion and ethics.
These manifold achievements in different spheres became possible because Indians had still a free open and inquiring attitude. Upanayana ritual was made obligatory for the whole Aryan community at about the beginning of this period This gave a great impetus to the Spread both of literacy in higher education. Learning became more and more extensive in course of time, education in the family became impracticable, and society began to encourage distin-guished scholars to become regular teachers. They used to organise private schools , for “higher studies, relying mainly on the voluntary contributions of students taking their advantage. Brahmacharya discipline was still rigorous. During the earlier part of” this” period,however, there was no dearth of women philosophers and scholars, some of whom used to organise schools and hostels for girls. Co-education was however not unknown.
The present age made its own contribution to the march of knowledge by further developing astronomy, astrology, poetics, classical Sanskrit literature, Dharma Sastra (sacred and secular law), logic, and the different systems of orthodox and heterodox philosophy.
The study of the different branches of knowledge that were flourishing in this age was preceded by a preliminary course in Sanskrit. After the Upanayana ceremony at about the the age of 8, all students used to memorise a few important Vedic hymns necessary for their daily or ceremonial needs. Then they used to devote four or five years to the study of elementary Sanskrit grammar and literature. At about the age of 13 or 14, the student used to be able to understand Sanskrit works on subjects like logic, philosophy, poetic, astronomy and mathematics
In order to get a general knowledge of the culture of the race, they were also required to study the epics, the Puranas and traditional stories. They were further trained to be good debaters ; the ability to defend one’s own position in learned assemblies and the capacity to compose a good poem in a very short time were regarded as the most important criteria of good scholarship.
Among the subjects cultivated during this period, the courses of advanced grammar and astronomy-cum-astrology were very popular. Every school for higher education had to engage several grammarians in order to give the necessary instructions in Sanskrit language, which was the key subject. The age believed in astrology and astrologers were in great demand throughout the country for preparing and interpreting almanacs and prognosticating future events.
THE AGE OF THE DHARMASASTRA ( 200 B. C. to c. 500 A. D,)
This period can be considered as the age of critical reflection and specialisation. The achievements. of the, preceding creative period were critically examined and special systems like the Samhkhya and the Yoga, the Nyaya and the Vaisesika, the Vedanta and the Yana in Buddhists were evolved ; this undoubtedly, marked considerable progress in critical thought. The creative vein however was still active, though in a less marked degree than before. Its activity was particularly noteworthy in the field of classical literature and sacred law, painting and sculpture, mathematics and astronomy. A considerable part of the religious literature was now canonized, but Hindus Still had an inquiring mind. Philosophical heterodox systems like the Jainism and the Buddhism were studied by the Hindus.This led to considerable progress in logic and meta-physics. Greeks were no doubt regarded as unholy foreigners (Mechchhas), but nevertheless their achievements in the realm of sculpture, coinage and astronomy were carefully studied and assimilated, which led to considerable progress in all these sciences.
There was a distinctive setback to the cause of education as a whole during this period. Child marriages became the order of the day. women education suffered very considerably. Only daughters of high^ class families used to receive education during this period. The lowering of the marriageable age of girls naturally involved the corresponding lowering of the marriageable age of boys. Brahmacharya discipline consequently became slack and nominal towards the end of this period ; the educational system could produce only a limited number of young men possessing a developed personality, characterised by self-confidence and sell reliance. During this period Upanayana of Kshatriyas and Vaishyas first became a mere formality. This development gave a severe blow to the general and cultural education of the warrior and the farmer, the trader and the artisan, and reduced their general efficiency. Their education gradually become too much specialized and narrow .There was too much of specialization in logic and philosophy, astronomy and mathematics ; there was no broad-based secondary course of education. The “educational system was still able to promote social efficiency and happiness and secure the preservation and spread of national culture; it-enabled society to absorb and assimilate a number of foreign tribes whom it could not drive out by military force. Towards the end of this period the higher education of the cultured classes received a great impetus and encouragement.
On account of the liberal support which these Institutions received from the state and society, they “were able to impart free education. Several colleges for higher education became famous centers of education, which in the course of time began to attract students from abroad as well. The training in practical sciences like sculpture and architecture, medicine and metallurgy was still very efficient.
THE AGE OF THE PURANAS AND NIBANDHAS ( 500 A. D. 1200 A. D)
India continued to enjoy the reputation of an international centre of education during this period also. Tibetan and Chinese students continued to flock in her eastern Universities, Her doctors used to be summoned in Western Asia for curing royal patients and organising state hospitals. Education had not become mere book learning; Indian teachers receive admiration of foreign students by their remarkable powers of explanation and exposition. Graduates of this period were remarkable for their logical acumen and mastery.
Facilities for free higher education continued to be ample ; if with the decline of Buddhism the number of monastic colleges decreased, the loss was more than compensated by the rise of numerous temple colleges. Brahmacharya discipline no doubt became nominal owing to early marriages ; even married students, however,’ showed commendable per severance in pursuing protracted courses of studies. Poor students continued to maintain themselves by begging. Society’s earnestness for education was remarkable.
The Vedic studies fell into background during this period. The number of the Vedic scholars, devoting themselves to the task of interpreting and expounding Vedic hymns, dwindled down very considerably during this period. Only a small number of Brahmanas were available to preserve and transmit the Vedic literature to the generations yet to come.. Though thus higher education continued to prosper, the education of the masses suffered during this period. Upanayana now completely disappeared from Kshatriyas_and Vaishya castes gave a serious blow to their cultural and literary education, reduced the percentage of literacy among them and made their education very narrow. Useful arts and professions began to be regarded as plebeian and were boycotted by the higher sections of Brahmanas ; as the services of the best intellect in society were no longer available for the development of arts and crafts, they ceased to make any progress worth the’ name. Growing orthodoxy of the age disapproved of dissection and condemned the pursuit of agriculture on the ground that it involved killing of insects at the time of ploughing. Medical education in the course of time became less efficient; surgery went out of vogue and agriculture became a neglected profession.
The marriageable age of girls was further lowered during this period; girls were ordinarily married at the age of 10 or 11. This naturally gave a death blow to the female education. A few ladies no doubt appear as poetesses during this period; they were however exceptions rather than the rule. Education could not reach the masses as the medium of higher instruction was Sanskrit, which was no longer the spoken tongue. No serious or concerted effort was made to develop literature in vernaculars in order to facilitate the infiltration of knowledge to the masses. The preservation of ancient literature and culture was the main concern of the education system. The creative vein in the Hindu intelligence could still be seen in the realm of poetic, and to a less extent, in those of philosophy, literature and astronomy. The situation deteriorated further by the growing self-conceitedness of the scholars of the age and their refusal to benefit by the knowledge and experience of outsiders. They had no longer a free, open and inquiring mind ; they would refuse to accept what was not in consonance with the views “of sacred scriptures. This stood in the way of progress in sciences like astronomy and medicine, history and geography.
BUDDHISM AND ANCIENT INDIAN EDUCATION
In ancient India in 600 B.C. and a new doctrine or system developed which is called Buddhist doctrine or Buddhist philosophy. It is to be said that on the foundation of Buddhism a new and special Education System originated in ancient India. Buddhism made a tremendous movement which played a valuable role in the development of Education System in ancient India or ancient Buddhist world. It is well-known that with the rise of Buddhism in India there dawned the golden age of India’s culture and civilisation. There was progress in all aspects of Indian civilisation under the impact of Buddhism. As far as the general educational theory or practice was concerned there was no difference between Hindus and Buddhists . its educational system did not present any important points of difference from those of Hinduism. Both systems had similar ideals and followed similar methods. Buddhism believes that the world is full of sorrow and that the salvation can be obtained only by renouncing it.In the beginning it concerned itself only with the education of novices and monks. However in the course of time it took up the education of the laity also.
Two ceremonies were laid down for those who desired to enter the Order, the Pabbajja and the Upsampada.The Pabbajja(Like (Upanayana. it has been compared to a spiritual birth) marked the beginning of the noviciate period and could be given when a person was not less than eight years old. The permission of the guardian was necessary.
The Upsampada was given after the end of the noviciate period, and the recipient had to be not less than twenty years old. If he was a debtor, an invalid or a government servant, he was refused admission. The ordination could take place only with the consent of the whole chapter. There were no caste restrictions for admission. The novice had to affirm his faith in the Buddha, his Dharhma (gospel) and Samgha (the Order), and select a learned person as his preceptor. He was to follow strictly the rules and discipline of the Order ;if he was guilty of any serious breach of discipline, he could be expelled by a meeting of the chapter. He was to do all manual and menial work connected with the monastic life, e. g. cleansing its floor and utensils, bringing water, supervising its stores, etc. Like the Hindu Brahmachari (student), he was expected to beg his daily food ; but he was permitted to accept invitations for meals from laymen.
Buddhist teachers led a very simple life and cost next to nothing to society. They were lifelong students of their different subjects ; for marriage did not intervene to put an end to or an obstacle in their studies. The needs of the teacher were minimum ; the famous teachers at Nalanda used to receive an allowance only three times larger than the amount given to an ordinary student. The teacher was to teach the student the rules of etiquette and discipline, draw his attention to the vow of chastity, poverty and abstinence from pleasures and help him in his intellectual and spiritual progress by suitable discourses and lessons in the morning and afternoon. He was also to help him in getting food and robes, and even to nurse him if he was sick. His own life was to be exemplary and the novice was permitted to act as a check on him if he was wavering in his faith or about to commit a breach of monastic discipline.
The Relation between the Novice and his Teacher were filial in character ; they were united together by mutual reverence, confidence and affection. Like the Hindu Brahmacharin, the Buddhist novice was to help his teacher by doing a variety of manual work for him ; he was to carry his seat and robes, supply him water and tooth stick, cleanse his begging bowl and utensils and accompany him as an attendant when he proceeded to the town or village for begging or preaching.
The Education of the Laity in the beginning Buddhist education was purely monastic and was intended only for those who entered, or intended to enter, the Order. Buddhism held that the worldly life was full of sorrow and that the salvation could be possible only by renouncing it. It could therefore naturally evince no interest in the education of those who intended to follow secular life and pursuits. In the course of time however it was realized that it was necessary to win public sympathy and support for the spread of the gospel ; this could be more successfully done if the Buddhist monk could help the cause of education. It was also realized that the best way to spread the gospel was to undertake the education of the rising generation. This calculated to enable the Order to mold and influence the minds of the younger section of the society.
This provide a better chance of both recruiting proper types of persons for the Order and of getting a larger number of lay sympathizers, if the educational effort was not confined to novices but was also extended to the whole community. Buddhism therefore threw itself heart and soul into the cause of the general education of the whole community.
Education was imparted by individual teachers in ancient India on their own private initiative and responsibility. The rise of organised public educational institutions may be justly attributed to the influence of Buddhism. Buddhist monasteries already existed as corporate bodies : when they developed into educational centres, they naturally became corporate educational institutions. Temple colleges of Hinduism probably owed their inspiration to the monastic colleges of Buddhism. In the heyday of Buddhism India was studded with monasteries, and about 10 per cent of them at least used to impart higher education. Some of these monastic like those of Nalanda, Valabhi and Vikramasila became international centres of learning and spread the fame of Indian education in Central and Eastern Asia. Nalanda used to give not only free tuition but also free food and clothing, certainly to monks and probably to lay students also. Buddhist monasteries were either independent and self-sufficient townships or situated on the outskirts of towns and villages. They therefore enjoyed the advantage of a quiet atmosphere.
Buddhists, monastic colleges were neither sectarian in their outlook nor purely theological in their courses. Buddhist philosophy played an significant part in their scheme of education, but adequate attention was also given to the study of the religion and philosophy of the different sects in Hinduism and Jainism. Education was not confined only to theology, philosophy and logic. Sanskrit literature, astronomy-cum-astrology, medicine and works on law, polity and administration were also taught for the benefit of lay students in order to enable them to get government service or follow useful and learned professions in society. Books being fragile and costly,students were naturally encouraged to commit important texts to memory ; this stood them in good stead in debates and controversies. But Buddhist education cannot be delimited to mere cramming of texts.
Reasoning and analysis formed an important part in the method of teaching ; what critical foreign students like Yuan Chwang and I-tsing admired in their Indian teachers was not their keen memory, which stored numberless texts, but their remarkable powers of explanation and exposition. Individual attention was paid to students.
Female Education : Buddhist At the time when Buddhist monasteries had developed into colleges of international reputation, women were not receiving any advantages of the education imparted in them. Their marriages were at that time taking place very early. In the early history of Buddhism however, the permission given to women to enter the Order gave a fairly good impetus to the cause of female education, especially in aristocratic and commercial sections of society. A large number of ladies from these circles joined the Order and became life-long students of religion and philosophy. Their example must have given an indirect encouragement to the spread of education among lay women as well.
In primary education reading, writing and arithmetic were taught and in higher education religion philosophy Ayurveda, military training was included. Everyone was free to choose his subject without any restriction.
At the initial stage medium of education was mother tongue, later it included Pali and Prakrit and in the following days Sanskrit also included as a medium of instruction. Specially the Mahayana Teachers achieved distinction in practicing Buddhism in Sanskrit. A special Sanskrit Buddhist literature developed. Mention may be made here that at the hands of Nagarjun, Asanga, Basubandhu, Santideva, Aryadeva and Candrakisti Buddhist philosophy and literature made tremendous progress through Sanskrit.
In later period according to the demand of the society and professional education, art, sculpture, architecture, medicine also included in the syllabus. Buddhist Education came out from the religious arena and went out for the benefit of the mankind.
Vocation education was not ignored during the Buddhist system of education. The monks of Vihar were taught spinning, weaving and sewing in order that they meet their clothing requirement. They were taught architecture as well. Education in architecture enabled them to build up new Vihars or repair the old ones. Similarly the householders following Buddhism but living outside Vihar were given training in different type of and also earn their livelihood.
It will thus be seen that Buddhism may well be proud of its contribution to the cause education in ancient In dial Its colleges threw their doors open to all.It raised the international status of India by the efficiency of its higher education, which attracted students from distant countries .The cultural sympathy which the countries in eastern Asia feel for India even today is entirely due to the work of the famous Buddhist colleges of ancient India. If some of the important lost texts can be reconstructed with the help of their Chinese translations, the credit must be given to Buddhist colleges, which enabled Chinese students to get their copies. Buddhist education also helped the development of Hindu logic and philosophy by initiating and encouraging comparative study. In the period of its early history, it championed the cause of education through the mother tongue ; later on it could not resist the charm and influence of Sanskrit and began to impart education through that language.
With the invasion of Muslim conquerors majority of centres of higher learning of the Hindus and Buddhists were destroyed. Temples and educational institutions and libraries were put to destruction and they were replaced by mosques. Nalanda was burnt to the ground and all its monks were slaughtered. Kanauj and Kashi were looted and plundered. In spite of such merciless and extensive destruction, Hindu educational institutions remained a living reality. They sustained strength from its inherent vitality and vigour and maintained the Hindu education system. Even during the reigns of terror and turmoil, merciless persecution and wanton destruction, the Hindu culture and scholarship continued to survive,. While the Buddhist system of education was extinguished, the Vedic system of education found patronage in the southern peninsula in places like Hampi, Sringeri and Kanchi. .