Dr. V.K. Maheshwari, Former Principal
K.L.D.A.V(P.G) College, Roorkee, India
Action research is known by many other names, including participatory research, collaborative inquiry, emancipator research, action learning, and contextual action research, but all are variations on a common theme. In nut shell, action research is “ Research in Action ” – a group of people identify a problem, do something to resolve it, see how successful their efforts were, and if not satisfied, try again.
Kurt Lewin, a German social psychologist, has been credited with the development of the idea of action research. He first found that experimental methods, in many cases, were inadequate and unsatisfactory. He then tried to seek for a method that based on people’s real world experience; from that time on, action research has entered the world of researchers.
According to Kurt Lewin , action research is “a comparative research on the conditions and effects of various forms of social action and research leading to social action”; this type of research uses “a spiral step,” each of which is “composed of a circle of planning, action and fact-finding about the result of the action”.
A more succinct definition is, is given by Thomas Gilmore, - ”Action research…aims to contribute both to the practical concerns of people in an immediate problematic situation and to further the goals of social science simultaneously. Thus, there is a dual commitment in action research to study a system and concurrently to collaborate with members of the system in changing it, in what is together regarded as a desirable direction. Accomplishing this twin goal requires the active collaboration of researcher and client, and thus it stresses the importance of co-learning as a primary aspect of the research process.”
O’Brien’s states that “action research is a natural way of acting and researching at the same time”. To make it clearer, Dick affirms that action research is a true reflection of its names as it is intended to achieve both action and research at the same time. It is critically suitable for educational situations where teachers wish to bring about action in the form of change or improvement in their teaching and at the same time develop an understanding which informs the change and is an addition to what is known.
Carr and Kemmis put the definition of action research in education as “action research is a form of self-reflective inquiry that can be utilized by teachers in order to improve the rationality and justice of (i) their own practices, (ii) their understanding of these practices and (iii) the situations in which these practices are carried out.
Obviously, the role of action research in education has been acknowledged when Hutchinson and Lomax claim that action research is a research that “concerns with broader curriculum issues, and often with the administration and management of school and institutional change.
Fundamental research and Action research
Several attributes separate action research from other types of research. Primary is its focus on turning the people involved into research, to learn best, and more willingly apply what they have learned, when they do it themselves. It also has a social dimension – the research takes place in real-world situations, and aims to solve real problems. Finally, the initiating researcher, unlike in other disciplines, makes no attempt to remain objective, but openly acknowledges their bias to the other participants.
Difference between Fundamental research and Action research
| Areas | Fundamental Research | Action research |
| Aims | Search new facts and establish universal truths
|
Look for solution to the prevalent school/ educational problems |
| Area of problem | Conductive in the context of general circumstances in the field of education | Problems related to specific school |
| Nature of problem | Theoretical and wide | Practical and narrow |
| Sample | Large and gathered from outside | Limited and gathered only from the related school. |
| Outcome/ Result | Can be used universally | Related to the specific school |
| Time | Unlimited, can work life long | Limited, maximum 1 session |
| Research procedure | Rigid, technical knowledge required | Flexible, no technical knowledge required |
| Investigator | Anyone, not necessary of the school | Teachers belongs to the same school |
| Collection of Data | Authentic tools are used | Teacher made tests are used |
| Analysis of data | Complex statistics are used | General statistics are used. |
Action Research in a Research Paradigm
Positivist Paradigm
Logical Positivism is the main research paradigm. This paradigm is based on principle of objective reality, knowledge of which is only gained from sense data that can be directly experienced and verified between independent observers. Phenomena are subject to natural laws that humans discover in a logical manner through empirical testing, using inductive and deductive hypotheses derived from a body of scientific theory. Its methods rely heavily on quantitative measures, with relationships among variables commonly shown by mathematical means.
Interpretive Paradigm
Interpretive Paradigm is based on the relationship between socially-engendered concept formation and language. Containing such qualitative methodological approaches as phenomenology, ethnography, and hermeneutics, it is characterized by a belief in a socially constructed, subjectively-based reality, one that is influenced by culture and history
Paradigm of Praxis
Praxis, a term used by Aristotle, is the art of acting upon the conditions one faces in order to change them. It deals with the disciplines and activities predominant in the ethical and political lives of people. Aristotle contrasted this with theories – those sciences and activities that are concerned with knowing for its own sake. Both are equally needed he thought. That knowledge is derived from practice, and practice informed by knowledge, in an ongoing process, is a cornerstone of action research.
Action Research in Education
Action research is actually suitable for any person or any group or organization who wishes to improve his performance; As a matter of fact, action research is widely used in education, especially by teachers who use it to improve their teaching. Obviously, action research well matches with education and benefits both teachers and a student in their teaching and learning since it meets the need of education and enables continuity in research.
Action research is used in real situations, , since its primary focus is on solving real problems. It can, however, be used by social scientists for preliminary or pilot research, especially when the situation is too ambiguous to frame a precise research question. Mostly, though, in accordance with its principles, it is chosen when circumstances require flexibility, the involvement of the people in the research, or change must take place quickly or holistically.
Carr and Kemmis pay much attention to the purposes of action research when they define it as “a form of self-reflective enquiry undertaken by participants in social situations in order to improve the rationality and justice of their own practices, their understanding of these practices and the situations in which the practices are carried out”.
Burns acknowledges action research as an influential tool for school and classroom investigation. He claims that purposes of action research in education fall broadly into categories that reflect action research as:
- A means of remedying problems in a specific situations or somewhat improving a given set of circumstances.
- A means of in-service training by equipping the teachers with new skills and methods, sharpening analytical powers and heightening self-awareness.
- A means of injecting additional or innovatory approaches to teaching and learning into an ongoing system which normally inhibits innovation and change.
- A means of improving the normally poor communications between the practising teachers and the academic researchers and of remedying the failure of traditional research to give clear prescriptions.
- A means of providing a preferable alternative to the more subjective, impressionistic approach to problem-solving in the classroom.
Glickman says that action research in education setting is a study conducted by teacher researchers to improve problems in their classrooms. In addition, Calhoun explains action research as a fancy research when she says that “let’s study what’s happening in our school and decide how to make it a better place”.
Traditionally, research in education intends to bring useful changes to either teachers’ teaching or students’ learning or both. Educators as teacher researchers often wish to carry out research within their classrooms or schools to improve their teaching, to assess a newly developed educational theory or to implement and evaluate an educational plan.
According to Hopkins a basis for the selection of a classroom research by teachers is based on the following criteria:
i) The teacher’s primary role is to teach and any research project must not interfere with or disrupt this commitment;
ii) The method of data collection should not be too demanding on the teacher’s time;
iii) The methodology used must be reliable enough to allow teachers to formulate hypotheses confidently and develop strategies applicable to the classroom situation;
iv) The teacher should be committed to the research problem under study;
v) Teachers must follow ethical procedures when carrying out research;
vi) Classroom research where possible should adopt a perspective where all members of a school community build and share a common vision.
In teaching as research, teacher researchers have adopted term “action research” to refer to their particular approach to classroom research. So far, action research has proved its suitability to education and become more and more important in education organizations.
Areas of action research in education
The problems related to education are originated in the school. Therefore the problem of action research in education is only related with the following fields:-
- Teaching practices: This field pertains to actual class teaching. The problems are related with instructional technology i.e. method, teaching aids, homework and other resources.
- Behavioral Problems: The ultimate aim of education is to bring desirable behavioral changes in the students. Sometimes, some students can start doing some abnormal behavior. The problems pertaining to this aspect fall under this field
- Co-Curricular Activities: co-curricular activities are integral part of curriculum. The problem confronted is the inadequate application of them in school.
- Administration and organization: Having a healthy environment in the school is a special need today. This is why the solution relates to the problems in this area is very important.
- Evaluation: Evaluation is an important part of the teaching process. Valid and reliable evaluation is the need of the day. The problems pertaining to testing falls under this area.
Principles / Components of Action Research
Borgia and Schuler describe components of action research as the “Five C’s”:
Commitment: Time commitment should be carefully considered by participants of action research since it takes them time to get acquaintance with other participants, think about change, try new approach, collect data, interpret results, etc.
Collaboration: In an action research all participants are equal to each others in terms of giving ideas, suggestions or anything that leads to success of the change.
Concern: In the research process, participants will build up a group of “critical friends” who trust each other and the value of the project.
Consideration: As it is mentioned above, reflective practice is a review of a professional research like action research. It demands concentration and careful consideration as one seeks patterns and relationships that will create meaning within the investigation.
Change: For humans, especially teachers, change is continuing and it is a significant element in remaining their effectiveness.
Winter (1989) provides a comprehensive overview of six key principles.
1) Reflexive critique
Truth in a social setting is relative to the teller. The principle of reflective critique ensures people reflect on issues and processes and make explicit the interpretations, biases, assumptions and concerns upon which judgments are made. In this way, practical accounts can give rise to theoretical considerations.
2) Dialectical critique
Reality, particularly social reality, is consensually validated, which is to say it is shared through language. Phenomena are conceptualized in dialogue; therefore a dialectical critique is required to understand the set of relationships both between the phenomenon and its context, and between the elements constituting the phenomenon. .
3) Collaborative Resource
Participants in an action research project are co-researchers. The principle of collaborative resource presupposes that each person’s ideas are equally significant as potential resources for creating interpretive categories of analysis, negotiated among the participants. It strives to avoid the skewing of credibility stemming from the prior status of an idea-holder
4) Risk
The change process potentially threatens all previously established ways of doing things, thus creating psychic fears among the practitioners. One of the more prominent fears comes from the risk to ego stemming from open discussion of one’s interpretations, ideas, and judgments. Initiators of action research will use this principle to allay others’ fears and invite participation by pointing out that they, too, will be subject to the same process, and that whatever the outcome, learning will take place.
5) Plural Structure
The nature of the research embodies a multiplicity of views, commentaries and critiques, leading to multiple possible actions and interpretations. This plural structure of inquiry requires a plural text for reporting. This means that there will be many accounts made explicit, with commentaries on their contradictions, and a range of options for action presented. A report, therefore, acts as a support for ongoing discussion among collaborators, rather than a final conclusion of fact.
6) Theory, Practice, Transformation
For action researchers, theory informs practice, practice refines theory, in a continuous transformation. In any setting, people’s actions are based on implicitly held assumptions, theories and hypotheses, and with every observed result, theoretical knowledge is enhanced. The two are intertwined aspects of a single change process. It is up to the researchers to make explicit the theoretical justifications for the actions, and to question the bases of those justifications. The ensuing practical applications that follow are subjected to further analysis, in a transformative cycle that continuously alternates emphasis between theory and practice.
Types of Action Research
The main ‘streams’ that had emerged by the mid-1970s are as follows:
Traditional Action Research-Traditional action research is originated from Lewin’s work within organizations. It tends toward conservative, general maintaining the status quo with regards to organization power structures. “The growth importance of labour-management relation led to the application of action research in area of organization development
Contextual Action Research (Action Learning) – “Contextual action research, also known as action learning, is stemmed from Trist’s work on relations between organizations. This approach stresses on participants’ act as project designers or co-researchers and structural relations among actors in a social environment (context)”.
Radical Action Research- “Radical action research has its roots in Marxian “dialectical materialism” and it centres on emancipation and the overcoming of power imbalances”. The two branches of this school is Participatory Action Research and Feminist Action Research
Educational Action Research-“Educational action research is founded after John Dewey, an American educational philosopher, who held that professional educators should become involved in community problem-solving”. Naturally, it concentrates on development of curriculum, professional improvement, and applying learning in a social context
From a different point of view, Creswell argues that there are two main types of action research as follows:
Practical Action Research Practical action research is used in situations in which teacher researchers “seek to enhance the practice of education through the systematic study of a local problem.” It usually involves a small-case research project, narrowly directs at a specific problem or issue and is undertaken by individual teachers or teams within a particular education setting.
Participatory Action Research Participatory action research is usually implemented in larger scale to improve “the quality of people’s organisation, communities and family lives”. Namely, it has a “social and community orientation” and it focuses on research that “contributes to emancipation or change in our society”.
Characteristics of Action Research
Hitherto, many scholars have attempted to characterize action research in terms of a school-based research.
McDonough proposes four characteristics of action research as follows:
- It is participant-driven and reflective;
- It is collaborative;
- It leads to change and the improvement of practice not just knowledge in itself; and
- It is context-specific. Action research is implemented in a classroom by a particular teacher or group of teachers who work together to pursue a change or improvement in their teaching and learning issues.
Briefly speaking, Creswell proposes six key characteristics of action research as:
- A practical focus;
- The educator-researcher’s own practices;
- Collaboration;
- A dynamic process;
- A plan of action and; and
- Sharing research.
Creswell asserts that understanding the above characteristics will help teacher’s better design their own study to read, evaluate and use an action research study published in literature.
The Action Research Process
Steps in action research vary from different points of view as Creswell asserts that “action research is a dynamic, flexible process” and there is “no blueprint exists for how to proceed.” Hence, it is really impossible to assert this or that researcher is right with exact four, five, six, seven or eight steps in their action research. Sometimes the number of steps in action research may vary depending on different points of view held by researchers.
Lewin’s model of action research involves a cyclic sequence including two major phases:
Diagnosis and Therapeutic
These two phases are then further divided into seven sub stages as follows:
Stage 1: In this stage, problem or just general idea about state of affair a participant wish to change or improve is identified, evaluated or formulated.
Stage 2: This stage is the time for fact finding so that a fully drawn picture of the situation is presented to help the researcher clarify the nature of the problem.
Stage 3: This stage is related and synthesized with the critical review of the problem in stage two. It aims at reviewing research literature to discover what can be learnt from comparable studies, their purposes, procedures and problems they come across come across. Usually, in this stage, the researcher generates hypotheses which attempt to enlighten some of the facts of the problem.
Stage 4: This is the stage where the researcher starts to gather relevant information to test hypotheses proposed in the previous stage. However, it is important to note that this testing of hypotheses is not statistical testing but an action seeing whether the evidence is compatible with the hypotheses. Lewin also suggests that even when one has finished testing hypotheses he should keep the status of “hypotheses” rather than “conclusions” as he may encounter situations where these hypotheses do not apply.
Stage 5: At this stage, teachers and other participants in collaborative team will discuss, negotiate and made decisions on the selection of research procedures including material choice, teaching methods, allocations of tasks, etc.
Stage 6: This stage gets participants involved in the realization of the action plan. They determine circumstances and methods of data collection, classification and analysis; they also together monitor the task and consider the choice of evaluative procedures.
Stage 7: This stage includes the interpretation of data collected and the overall evaluation of the research. At this stage, the cycle of research is likely to be repeated. At the end of each cycle, outcomes of the research are studied; some suggestions are proposed and test, etc. The projected is finally reported to the public.
Considering action research as an activity research, Nunan develops seven steps in the action research cycle :
Step1: Initiation – A problem triggers the idea of action research
Step 2: Preliminary investigation – Baseline data are collected to help understand the nature of the problem.
Step 3: Hypotheses – A hypothesis is formulated after reviewing the initial data.
Step 4: Intervention – A number of strategies are devised and applied.
Step 5: Evaluation – An assessment is carried out to evaluate the intervention. Some steps may be repeated.
Step 6: Dissemination – A report of the research is published. Ideas emerged from the research are shared.
Step 7: Follow-up – Alternative solutions for the problem are continually investigated.
To make it simple, Gay and Airasian propose the basic steps in action research as follows:
Step 1: Identify topic or issue to study;
Step 2: Collect data related to the chosen topic or issue;
Step 3: Analyze and interpreted the collected data; and
Step 4: Carry out action planning, which represents the application of the action research results.
In contrast, Creswell looks at procedure of action research as detail process with 8 steps as:
Step 1: Determine if action research is the best design to use;
Step 2: Identify a problem to study;
Step 3: Locate resources to help address the problem;
Step 4: Identify information to be needed;
Step 5: Implement the data collection;
Step 6: Analyze the data;
Step 7: Develop a plan for action; and
Step 8: Implement the plan and reflect In brief, these above processes of action research are different from one another since they are either basic, simple or elaborate models. During the research, one may find models either more effective or less suitable than the other ones depending of particular situations and education settings.
Gerald Susman (1983) gives a somewhat more elaborate listing. He distinguishes five phases to be conducted within each research cycle . Initially, a problem is identified and data is collected for a more detailed diagnosis. This is followed by a collective postulation of several possible solutions, from which a single plan of action emerges and implemented. Data on the results of the intervention are collected and analyzed, and the findings are interpreted in light of how successful the action has been. At this point, the problem is re-assessed and the process begins another cycle. This process continues until the problem is resolved.
Action Research Model
(Adapted from Susman 1983)
Advantages of Action Research in Education
For teachers, action research can have several advantages . These include reflection on education practice, identification of strategies for improvement and acquisition of research skills. Collaborative action research has the additional benefit of engaging teachers and principals in joint work to improve education outcomes.
Action research aims at addressing an actual problem in a specific education setting namely the teacher researchers are studying a practical issue that will benefit education. Besides, teacher researchers engage in action research first and foremost because of their own situation rather than someone else’s practice. In this sense, they engage in “participatory” or “self-reflective teaching”; namely, they reflect on what they have learnt and what they can do to improve their own educational situation
Teachers as researcher and students as change-receiver profit much from action research. When looking at educational dimension of action research.
Teachers investigate their own practice in new ways, looking deeper in what they and their students actually do and fail to do.
Teachers develop a deeper understanding of students, the teacher learning process and their role in the education of both teachers and students.
Teachers are viewed as equal partners in deciding what works best and what needs improvement in their classroom or classrooms. In most cases, solutions for identified problems are arrived cooperatively among teachers.
Teachers are often more committed to action research because they identify the areas they view as problematical and in need of change. Action research is an ongoing process and its strategies can be widely applied. Professional development and school improvement are core aspects for any teacher who engages in action research.
Teacher reflection can be conducted individually or in a school-based team composed of students, teachers and administrators.
Borgia and Schuler, admits the importance of action research in education by adding that action research:
- Encourages change in schools
- Fosters a democratic approach to education
- Empowers individuals through collaboration on projects
- Positions teachers and other educators as learners who seek to narrow the gap between practice and their vision education
- Encourages educators to reflect on their practice
- Promotes a process of testing new ideas.
Limitations of Action Research
There are several limitations to action research. Theoretically, action research can be either descriptive or experimental. Most action research studies use descriptive research designs but attempt to draw conclusions about the effects of an action on some outcome. Action research studies rarely employ experimental methods, such as the use of a control group or the matching or random assignment that give experimental studies their power. Conclusions about cause and effect are reliable, only when they are based on solid experimental research designs.
Another limitation is that most action research is restricted to one classroom or school, which means that the results cannot be generalized to other classrooms or schools. Thus, action research studies often lack both internal and external validity , useful for making policy decisions.
Action researchers work in the hurly burly of their own practice. Monitoring closely this practice as they are acting within it demands space and time which, almost by definition, the practice does not give easily. It is therefore difficult to maintain rigour in data gathering and critique.
Action research is carried out by individuals who are interested parties in the research. This fact has led to criticisms of the validity of the research process, with accusations of inevitable researcher bias in data gathering and analysis.
Unfamiliarity with research methods among researchers .Action researchers frequently explore what may constitute adequate research methods at the same time as they are researching their practice. This kind of ‘on the job’ training and consequent ad hoc planning, has led to accusations of unreliability in data gathering. To some extent, this unreliability is inevitable, but the notion only makes sense in the presence of verifiably reliable data gathering. From this perspective, action research would claim that, flawed or not, the process provides the most reliable access to practice.
Action researchers draw attention to the notion of commitment. An action researcher must be committed to rigorous examination and critique of his or her practice. This, however, is a difficult principle. Commitment cannot be measured easily and the process will continue to be criticised because of this.
Action research produces results which can not be generalised .This is true, but someone else’s ideas or conclusions can always be tried out by other persons in their own practice, to see if they work for them .
Representations of the process of action research may confuse, rather than enlighten-The range of visual diagrams of the action research process are of varying complexity and, perhaps, not always helpful .
They can give a false sense of regularity to the teacher. Action research is a messy process , with forays into territory only partially related to the main focus of study, aborted lines of inquiry and continual refocusing. Hopkins (1993) criticises the tight, orderly representations as having the potential to ‘trap teachers within a framework which they might come to depend on and which will, consequently, inhibit independent action’ .
The rhetoric of action research may be confusing, or in contradiction with the main principles of the process.
Action research is an informal research since teachers are not academic researchers; even then it is extremely suitable for education as its main purpose is to help teachers as researchers, solve their teaching problems “in action”. It allows teachers to learn about their teaching and at the same time they get an opportunity to improve their teaching. They are able to do this because action research has a cyclic process. Teachers notice what they do with what results. They learn from this. They apply their new learning to plan improvements. They try it out. They notice what happens, thus repeating the cycle.