Dr. V.K. Maheshwari, Ph.D

 

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D.

Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed.

Former Principal, A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

‘’National integration cannot be built by brick & mortar; it cannot be built by chisel & hammer, it has to grow silently in the minds & hearts of men. The only process is the process of education.’’

Dr Radhakrishnan, Former President of India

National Integration most simply and briefly means national unity. National integration is the awareness of a common identity amongst the citizens of a country.  It is unity in diversity. It means unifying all the forces in the country so as to give the idea of one nation. National Integration involves , the sentiments of nationalism the feeling of oneness. social, political, economic, linguistic and cultural unity, common ideas of life and common code of behaviour, the ability to subordinate sectarian and parochial loyalties to loyalty of the nation.

It will not be an exaggeration if we say that complete national integration cannot take place without emotional integration. Emotional integration basically means unity of thoughts and feelings of all the citizens of a country. Pt. Jawhar Lal Nehru has said “By emotional integration, I mean the integration of minds and hearts, the suppression of feelings of separatism.” Emotional integration is an essential condition and basis for national integration because sense of oneness is developed among the people of a country through training of mind and heart. In brief, we can say that prefect national integration cannot takes place without emotional integration.

According to the Emotional Integration Committee Report (1962), the attributes of national emotional integration are as follows

i) A strong feeling of brotherhood and nationhood that sinks and ignores individuals, parochial linguistic and religious differences

ii) The common mental bond that binds all people irrespective of their differences towards the aesthetic, spiritual and material progress

.iii) Creation of a feeling of oneness and mental outlook towards the welfare of the country above narrow sectarian interests

.iv) A harmonious blending of personal emotion in an individual with his social obligation resulting in a well balanced personality

.v) A feeling of harmony and the welding of diverse elements of society into a very compact and homogenous unit

.vi) A firm conviction on the part of each individual that he is an integral component of the whole social unit for the healthy development of self and community

The unity of a nation depends upon the extent to which its various members look upon themselves as members of the same group. National unity or integration does not automatically follow upon living within the same geographical boundaries. Emotional integration is necessary for this unity. As is evident from the term itself, emotional integration is the unity, identity or similarity of emotions. If it exists, then individuals feel related to and concerned with each other, despite any external differences. It is emotional integration which keeps members of a family organized.

Emotional Integration the present  Scenario

Generally speaking, the extent of diversity found in India tends to create the impression that it is not a country but a subcontinent. But this does not imply that unity or integration is impossible in such a situation. One finds distinct and different racial characteristics among the inhabitants of different parts of the country, because differences of complexion, size, shape, etc., are clearly evident. It can be clearly seen that there is a gradual decline in the physical stature of the inhabitants as one moves from Punjab to Assam. If other examples are necessary, it can be seen that there are all kinds of complexions in this country. In the north complexion varies from darkly wheatish, dark, yellow to red and even runs into mixtures of these colours. Inhabitants of the Andamans are jet black while those of the South Dravidians is a shining black, in direct contrasts is the rosy white complexions of the Kashmiris. Turning to languages, one finds that the Indian

Constitution has granted recognition to Urdu, Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, Punjabi, Gujarati, Marathi, Sindhi and numerous other languages, in addition to Hindi. Besides, Telugu, Kannada, Tamil and Malayalam have been accepted as the four Dravidian languages. Sanskrit has also been given special consideration, as the original Aryan language. Differences exist not only at the level of language but also in respect of dress, religion, culture, etc. Tribes of the northeast, central districts and the south differ from each other in their modes of life, their social and psychological characteristics, etc., to such a great extent that one can find among them different cultural and social regions. If one travels from east to west, and then back again, one will find clearly perceptible differences in complexion, dress, customs, modes of life, dietary habits and other aspect of culture, even at very short distances. But despite these differences of region, race, language, tribe, etc., the existence of national unity cannot be questioned. One finds this inner unity or integration in all the people spread over the landmass limited by Himalayas on the one side and the Indian Ocean on the other, the Burma Hills on the east and Pakistan on the west. This inner unity is the basis of emotional integration. Despite the more obvious and superficial differences, prosperity increases. It is this inner unity which Sir Herbert Rizley described when he commented that, at the root of the apparent diversity of physical and social type, language, custom and religion that immediately strikes the observer coming to India, is a definite similarity or identity or inner unity of life from the Himalayas to Cape Comorin. This inner integration or unity is the basis of Indian culture. All the saints of the past were aware of this unity, although they were no less aware of the obvious differences. It is for this reason that India has always been treated as a single unit, even in the remote past. It has been customary to refer to all the people residing in different parts of the country as Indians, even though one could see the differences of religion, culture, languages, etc. In fact, the very name Bharatvarsha denotes not merely geographical boundaries but actually the ideal of a cultural unity.

Obstacles to Emotional Integration

The progress and growth of Emotional Integration  in India is being impeded by certain elements and obstacles, the more important ones among which are the following:

Communalism.

The greatest menace to the national solidarity of a country is communalism. Communalism is one factor that poses a great danger to our unity. The formation of the State of Pakistan in 1947 led to terrible communal riots. A very large number of people lost their lives and their homes and had to undergo a lot of suffering to resettle. In India today, there are still many Muslims who do not accept India as their country. At the root of this is communalism, and because of their blind faith in their own community they believe the country to belong to Hindus, although it belongs to everybody. It is impossible to evolve nationalism without first putting an end to the mutual distrust

The British had encouraged communalism because a division between Hindus and Muslims made it easier for them to control our country. Unfortunately, even with the passage of time these communal feelings have not ended. More than sixty years after independence communal feelings still exist and riots flare-up even now in different parts of the country. It is the result of narrow-mindedness, prejudice, and lack of knowledge of other religions.

Regionalism.

The second danger to national integration is provincialism. It springs from the same sentiments which work behind communalism. Regionalism is another obstacle in the way of national integration .Aggressive regionalism has gravely undermined the feeling of the people. It creates a parochial outlook and narrow-It is primarily a socio-economic problem,. The extremely uneven economic development of the different regions of India has created tensions and jealousy between the states as to which should get priority in the matter of new projects and industries. These tensions have their origin in genuine grievances of the regions and states that have been denied fair shares of projects and industries in the overall structure of development. In contemporary India, regionalism and regional loyalties have spread so much that even the political unity of the country is being threatened. Some states have expressed the desire to secede from the Union, because they believe themselves to be separate nations. Such tendencies should be suppressed with a strong hand because otherwise national unity may be damaged beyond repair.

Linguistic differences

Another expression of the disorganizing influences at work in the country is linguism. With independence came the problem of deciding a national language, because a national language is essential for maintaining the unity of the nation. Compared to other languages Hindi is best equipped to fulfil this role, but many people object to this because ofnarrow political interests. In addition, the people of some states are not willing to accept any language but their own. This controversy turned violent and led to considerable bloodshed.

The language controversy started with Hindi being given the status of the official language of the Indian Union. The people of the South revolted against it and threatened to go out of the Union if Hindi was imposed upon them. The Constitution of India was amended to meet their demand. The plea of the South is that recognition of Hindi as the only official language will by implication and in effect create conditions for the domination of one linguistic group over all others.

Linguistic differences also create problems. Our Constitution has given recognition to eighteen languages. This is something important in a country such as ours. One’s mother tongue is dear to each and everyone. It is also essential to impart education in the mother tongue for quick and easy learning for the convenience of the people of a State it is also necessary to carry on official work in it. This also helps a language to develop and grow. Hindi and English act as link languages between States in our country.

Casteism.

Casteism is the most restricted form of narrow interests. It is the greatest curse for our national unity.  As a result of this, not only the country but even Hindu society has been fragmented into small pieces, each one of which is concerned only with preserving its own interests, without caring for those of other groups. In the presence of this casteism, nationalism is a far cry. Even the unity of the Hindu social organisation is difficult to maintain. Hence, it is necessary to get rid of casteism, although it is not necessary for this to destroy the caste system

There are a number of castes and hundreds of sub-castes found in India. It is the greatest curse for our national unity. It is still wide spread in different forms. Harijans are still treated as a lower class in many places. There are even conflicts between Shias & Sunnies. Casteism also poses a great threat to our unity. People of one caste support each other and oppose the progress and development of people belonging to other castes. Appointments in jobs, admissions in educational institutions are often on the basis of caste considerations. People also avoid social interaction with other castes. The social oppression to which the people belong to scheduled castes are subjected is one of the blackest spot on the fair name of India.

Different political parties

In our country there are many political parties. Out of these some work for the growth of the national unity but there are certain other parties which cause national disruption. What is much more important and necessary is that all political parties, particularly regional parties, do not adopt a policy that national integration . They do not convince their followers that they should think of the Nation first and then of the States. They do not give priority to the interests of the country first and only  consider their local interest.

Economic disparity

There is so much economic disparity that some people starve or go without food for a number of days while others are rolling in wealth. These poor people easily become victims of propaganda & if some agents of some external powers show them the pictures of their bright future, they may go to any extent to disintegrate their nation. The bad economic conditions always breed anti-national elements & bring about the worst sort of disruption, division & disunity in the country.

Lack of good leadership

The success of democracy depends upon the good leaders. Most of our leaders are selfish and unscrupulous. They either work for their own vested interests. they do not care for the national interest. Such leaders stand as an obstacle is the path of national unity.

Frustrated youth

Youth of today is sitting at the crossroads. He is frustrated because of the rampant corruption, favouritism, unemployment; uncertain future etc. Unemployment intelligentsia is the greatest threat to national cohesion. It causes frustration, Complexes, conflicts, restless and discontentment. A frustrated youth is country’s worst enemy.

Illiteracy

India is a country, which has large percentage of illiterates. The larger percentage of the illiteracy is considered responsible to misdirect the emotional feelings on one side & on the other hand it results in developing negative tendencies restricting national and emotional integration

Historical background:

Since ancient times, religious and political leaders have tried to understand India as one cultural and historical unit. But it is also a historical fact that in India, different states had been waging wars against each other. Similarly the whole of the India was divided in 1947 in two nations— Bharat and Pakistan. The criterion of partition was that Muslim majority area was given to Pakistan and Hindu majority areas were given into the hands of India. Some non-Muslims are there in Pakistan and some Muslims are there in our country. Since this partition was religion based, so the feelings of hatred are there in between these communities, which have adverse effect on our nation.

Cultural disparities

India is a land of so many cultures & mostly these are contradictory to each other. As such there is little chance of achieving any unity among them. Since culture is related to customs & traditions, cultural differences will necessarily divide the society.

Classicism

Most people in India create distinctions among themselves on the basis of economic and social classes. Communist influence has encouraged class hatred to such an extent that various classes fight for their own interests, even at the cost of the national interest. . This class struggle is a serious impediment to the growth of national sentiment.

Efforts at Increasing Emotional Integration

It was the question of emotional integration which inspired the Central Education Ministry in 1961 to organize a Committee for Emotional Integration under the Chairmanship of Dr. Sampurnanand. This campaign to increase emotional integration had the solid foundation, belief in the principle of unity in diversity. All that is needed is that the younger generation should be educated in this direction through various kinds of programmes. Speaking at the inauguration of the Indian Integration Committee, K.L. Shrimali, explained the significance of education and commented that if we want to generate a national consciousness in our people, we will have to plan our education accordingly. Education must be so designed as to encourage each participant to think of himself as a responsible part of the Indian nation. Education must take upon itself the responsibility of awakening the younger generation to the truth that, despite obvious external differences, all Indians are the same emotionally.

Keeping in mind the objective outlined above, the Emotional Integration Committee gave the following suggestions:

1. Reorganization of Syllabi. In order to reorganize and reshape the syllabi of colleges and the universities to accord with the needs of the nations, the Committee made the following suggestions:

(1) At the primary stage, stress should be laid upon nationalistic stories, poems, songs, etc.

(2) At the secondary stage, in addition to the other subjects being taught, special attention should be given to the study of national literature, social studies, moral and religious guidance and extra-curricular activities.

(3) At the university level, the syllabi include the various social sciences, languages, literatures, cultures and arts. Teachers and students should be given facilities to travel to various parts of the country.

2. Encouragement to extra-curricular activities. Besides imparting formal knowledge to the students the teachers must provide them with the opportunity to take part in such extra-curricular activities which are important from the standpoint of emotional integration. Besides such programmes, must also represent the entire nation. Such programmes help in the development of ‘we’ feeling, a feeling of unity and sympathy. One example of such programmes is the Inter University ncultural festivals, in which teachers and students participate from all parts of the country.

3. Improvement of textbooks. It is desirable that textbooks on various subjects, and especially on history, should be amended and improved. They should be designed to encourage a sense of emotional unity with people living in other parts of the country. This will also help to check the growth of communal feelings. But it should also be remembered that such amendments should not be made at the cost of truth because such violence to truth is not necessary. That the country is one is an undeniable truth. What is required is an expression of this truth.

4. Improvement concerning language and script. In this connection the Committee on Emotional Integration made the following recommendations:

(1) The use of the Roman script should be permitted to increase knowledge of Hindi in certain areas.

(2) International numerals should be used in every part of the country.

(3) Arrangements should be made to teach the Devanagari script where it is not known.

(4) Hindi textbooks should also be provided in the regional scripts. Dictionaries using both Hindi and the regional languages should also be prepared.

(5) At the university level, study of Hindi and English literatures should be encouraged so that integration is encouraged and divisive forces checked.

(6) The rights of the minorities should be protected in formulating a language policy.

In addition to the above list of suggestion, the Committee for Emotional Integration also made certain other suggestions.

In schools the daily programme should be started after a community prayer and a ten minute talk, either by the principal or by some respected person, on some subject which may encourage emotional integration. Another way of encouraging emotional integration is to organize a mass meeting of the school once a year and asking the students to take an oath to increase emotional integration. Besides, all subjects and activities likely to lower awareness of differences should be encouraged. In this manner it is possible to create a climate in which all people feel that they are members of one nation. On the negative side, all efforts must be made to destroy all elements which tend to obstruct the growth of emotional integration.

Forces Promoting National Integration

Indian Constitution

Our founding fathers were aware that there were threats to our unity from various forces. Consequently, certain safeguards were placed in our Constitution. These took the form of certain ideals and principles like Democracy, Secularism, and Social Equality that are guaranteed under our Fundamental Rights. Thus, our Constitution is the most important force that promotes national integration. In this true perspective of India’s cultural heritage, the Constitution of Independent India provided for a strong Central Government to keep the divisive and disintegrating forces under firm check. The Constitution also assures equality and security to all classes of persons regardless of their caste, creed, religion, language, place of birth and domicile. It made India a secular state, guaranteeing equal freedom to all its citizens to profess, practise and propagate their religions without any interference. Safeguards and reservations were specially provided for linguistic minorities and Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

Democratic set up

As democratic states all the citizens of India are equal under the law of the country. As studied earlier, our Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of State Policy specifically state that each citizen is equal in every way. People cannot be discriminated against on the basis of differences of caste, religion, language, and culture.

National festivals

Act as an important unifying force. Independence Day, Republic Day, and Gandhi Jayanti are festivals that are celebrated by all Indians and in all parts of the country, regardless of language, religion or culture. They remind us of our common nationality.

Interdependence

Different regions of the country are dependent on each other for supplying and consuming various kinds of products that result in their economic growth. Wheat grown in Punjab may be sold in Tamil Nadu and cotton textiles from Gujarat may be sold in Bihar. No region is so self-sufficient that it can do without the other. These factors also bind the country together.

Other forces like the communication system and the mass media-  Help in the exposure to all the cultures of different regions of India. Thus, bringing the whole country together as one nation.

Our National Symbols like the National Flag, the National Anthem, and the National Emblem also help to remind us that we are all identity. For this reason we stress on the importance of showing proper respect to these symbols. These act as strong unifying forces both in times of celebration and adversity.

India is a secular state. This means that each citizen of our country has the right to practice his or her religion. The government cannot show preference to one religion at the expense of another. A unique feature of our country is that all the major religions of the world are practiced here like Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Sikhism, Jainism, and Zoroastrianism. There are also great varieties in costume, food habits, and social customs. Geographically our land is diverse and there are amazing differences in climate. Despite all these differences India is a political entity, every part of which is governed under the same Constitution. We have to co-exist with each other peacefully, respect the culture and religion of our fellow Indians.

Emotional Integration and Education

This consciousness of nationality is generated in the younger generation through education, and hence there is a profound relationship between nationality and education. In India, when the revolt against the British government was awakened, all national leaders demanded the formation of a national educational programme. They argued that the educational programme of the country should be modified to suite the requirements of the nation. In 1921, Mahatma Gandhi expressed his views on this subject in Young India, criticising the existing educational pattern introduced by the British people. He too demanded that the educational pattern must be modified to suite the demands of the nation. His reasons for adding manual work to education were sound since he knew that education must pay its own way in a poor country like India. Rabindra Nath Tagore conducted an experiment in Shantiniketan to produce a novel kind of human society in which the problems of the individual and the community, the nation and the world, could be solved simultaneously. Swami Dayanand insisted upon reforming education to suit the educational pattern that existed in ancient times. On the other hand, Annie Besant’s educational plan, which included the establishment of primary schools, lower middle schools, higher middle schools, high schools for general education, high schools for general science, commercial schools, technical high schools, agricultural high schools etc., was more directory in touch with the problems of contemporary India.

Madan Mohan Malviya established the Hindu University at Kashi in order to realize the ideals of education which prevailed in ancient India. In addition to these individual and specific efforts, all other educational philosophers of the time, including Sri Aurobindo, Vivekanand, etc., favoured the modification of the educational pattern in order to make it conform to ancient Indian values, ideas and thinking. In more recent times, in his report of the Universities commission, Dr. S. Radhakrishnan pointed out the defects of the existing pattern of education, and suggested that it should be refashioned to fulfil national needs. It is only because of the feeling of nationality that most educationists have objected to the use of English as a medium of instruction in the country. Every one has stressed the need for education to be a character building process,because without this the future of the nation will always remain dark. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan has said that the future of the nation is made by character. No country can be great if its inhabitants have low characters. If we want to create a great nation, we must educate our young men and women in such a manner that they should possess the force of character. We must have men and women who see themselves reflected in other human beings. This has been said in our sacred texts.

Stressing the need for an education for nationality the Kothari Education Commission has said that the objective of our system of education should be to develop national consciousness. For this we must develop the knowledge of our cultural heritage, but we must also submit this cultural heritage to revaluation. At the same time we must have faith in the future towards which we are moving.

Ways And Means of National Integration

Education is of great significance for bringing out about National and emotional integration. It is a strong weapons which can be used effectively for achieving our national understanding. Education had been, education is & education will remain a strong instrument in bringing national integration. No one can deny its significance. Some of the ways and means to promote National Integration are as under:

National system of education

If education is to justify its role in establishing national integration in the country, we must have a uniform national system/pattern of education from primary to university level throughout length & breadth of the country.

National Policy of Education

The policy should have the uniform pattern from primary to university level throughout the length and the breadth of the country. The following things should be implemented:-

a) Admissions-Students should be admitted in the institutions on the basis of intelligence and ability.

b) Scholarship-It should be given on the basis of their ability and financial position and not on the basis of caste, religion or community.

c) Migration- Domiciliary restrictions in regard to migration of students between one state and another should be immediately removed.

National festivals

Masses should be motivated to participate in national festivals. These festivals should be organized by government agencies and NGO’s & educational institutions. Indian freedom fighters should be remembered on regular basis & their anniversaries should be celebrated by doing more work not by holidays.

National history

National history should be taught to develop a deep historical understanding in the students. History should reveal India’s unity in diversity, diversity of religions, languages, customs, social characteristics, etc., In history books all rulers should be treated only as rulers and not as the representatives of any particular community. All the textbooks that are taught in schools & colleges should be scrutinized. If there is any dominance of any particular culture or religion, it should be reduced to parity. India belongs to all its citizens, not to some groups or religions.If there is any anti-national element in any text book, it should be removed after scrutiny.

Daily assembly

It is suggested that in schools and colleges, there should be ten minutes talk by the head of the institution or some senior teacher or some distinguished visitor after the roll call. These talks may include some extracts from speeches of well known personalities, ancient or modern. Quotes of political leaders & spiritual heads should form a part of it. Students may be asked to repeat a pledge twice a month dedicating themselves to the service of their country and their countrymen

National anthem   should be recited every day before the commencement of school work & the students should also be made familiar with its meaning. Competent translation of the anthem should be made in all the regional languages and National flag,  Importance of national flag should be discussed. Rules to be followed on the occasion of flag hoisting ceremony should also be discussed.

Tours/Excursions

Tours from one state to another should be undertaken in increasing number for students as well as teachers. These inter-state visits, if properly organised, will do much to  acquaint both teachers and students with different parts of our country. It will provide an opportunity to come closer to the people living in other parts our country. Cultural exchanges are also useful in promoting national integration.

Debates and dramas

Dramas, debates, discussions & other cultural activities advocating national character of Indian society should be organised across the country. Mass media can play a significant role here but it is possible only when people associated with these activities are especially trained by education. If the editor of a newspaper is a narrow-minded, if not anti-national, his attitude will surely be reflected in his newspaper. So first of all, prepare nationalist editors, then we should expect something positive from mass media.

Games & sports should be organised on inter-state basis to boost healthy competitions & channelization  of the energy of the youth for creative purposes.

National language

Students & teachers should make much use of national language in their everyday life and various activities of the school. It will help in developing feeling of nationalism and emotional understanding in them.

Religious and moral education

Religious and Moral education emphases the brotherhood of mankind is a great persuading force to bring about emotional and national integration. True secularism is not opposed to religious and moral teaching rather secularism implies true religion and morality.

History   stands testimony to the fact that more blood has been shed in the name of religion than anything else. But it is also a fact that no religion teaches violence and hatred. Religious harmony is a must for national and emotional integration. Religious and moral education should support moral character, train emotions, inculcate tolerance, honesty, truthfulness and oneness of God.

Adult Education

Mass illiteracy and lack of proper education, endanger national solidarity. India is still a land of mass illiteracy. Adult education programmes should be organized while keeping in view the development of national consciousness and national solidarity.

Role of Teacher in National Integration

Success of most of these programmes for increasing national unity depends upon teachers. As long as the teachers themselves do not rise above their petty narrow mindedness and create ideals, there is little hope of the students developing any emotional unity. Hence, it is desirable that national consciousness should first be stirred in the students. For this, teachers from various parts of the country should be encouraged to meet each other. This can be done through the All-India Teachers organization. Even otherwise, most of the problems of teachers are common all over the country, and when they meet each other they will get an opportunity to think over these problems and exchange ideas. At the same time, a national consciousness will awaken in them. Yet, attention must be paid to forestalling the development of a class-consciousness among the teachers. The Government can make a positive contribution in this direction by organizing lectures from time to time and distributing literature of this kind.

Teacher should play an very effective role for the promotion of national integration. Only national minded teacher can strengthen the spirit of unity and the idea of compositeness. A teacher can make the following contributions:-

A teacher has been regarded as the builder of the nation. He influences the students by his behaviour. He should have a national outlook and reflect national consciousness, actions, conduct and behaviour so that the students may receive the message of national integration.

He should rise above petty biases and prejudices. He should be impartial and treat his students equally without distinction of caste , sex, creed, colour and religion etc.He should have firm faith in national unity and love for the country. What a teacher does speak more loudly than what he says. He should do whatever he says. There should be no difference in saying and doing.

Teacher must introduce his country in his lessons. The history of his country, its cities, its rivers, its songs, its people etc. History, civics and geography, literature, art and music should be taught from the national point of view.

Teacher should co-operate in recasting books on Indian history, civics, literature and language etc. leading the students to appreciate historical, social , cultural, linguistic and religious of the people of India. The teacher should stimulate students to read newspapers and books of non- communal nature throwing light on the contributions of nationalists.

Teacher should inspire them for having faith and love for national language, national literature, national culture, national festivals, national symbols and national glory. When the teacher notices that young minds are going towards casteism, linguism, narrow mindedness, rowdyism and hooliganism, he should try to check them.

National Integration is vital for India’s survival. It is the cry of the moment. The country must mobilize all its resources to evolve a concrete national programme. The future of the nation is dark unless a high national character of the people is developed.

Suggestions for Improving Emotional Integration

Apart from the suggestions outlines above, education can be used in the following suggested ways for improving emotional integration in the country:

Development of an all-India languages.

The first condition for increasing emotional integration in the country is that an All-India language should be evolved. Hindi is the only language capable of performing this role. Hence, it is desirable that knowledge of this language be made compulsory for every citizen. Government should extend every facility for developing Hindi literature, and the development of regional languages. They should be allowed to pursue their own course. But all communications between the Centre and the State should be conducted in the all-India language.

Applicants for administrative jobs in the Government should be required to know Hindi, although they may be allowed to take the examination in their regional language.

An all India Educational policy.

Education is the most effective tool for spreading emotional and national integration. For this reason a national educational plan should be devised. This plan should aim at providing every child with knowledge of the ideas of great men, poets, leaders, religious thinkers, etc. Textbooks should be prepared under the supervision of the Central Government and provided by it, so that the younger generation may be brought up in an atmosphere of nationalistic fervour. Rules for the appointment of teachers, their pay scales and their conditions of working should be common all over the country. The same syllabi should be applicable to all institutions in the country at the primary, secondary and university levels. All-India organizations like the N.C.C., Scouting, Girl Guides, etc., should be given appropriate encouragement. University education should be through the medium of the national language, even if the students are permitted to answer questions in their mother tongues. In this manner, the objective of national unity or integration can be achieved by evolving an All-India educational plan.

Programmes for increasing national unity.

Many kinds of programmes can be devised for increasing national unity. For example, the cinema can be used to spread the feeling of national unity. Radio and television can also be used equally effectively. All-India competitions and meetings can be organized in various parts of the country to increase national unity. Such programmes help people living in different parts of the country to meet residents of other parts and learn their ideas and understand them. Travel facilities should be made more common and delegations and tours encouraged. During the last few years special trains made up of farmers of different areas, students and members of Parliament toured the entire country. This helped the cause of national integration. Other programmes similar to these can be organized.

Development of inter-cultural understanding.

In all the programmes outlined above, inter-cultural understanding will be promoted. This helps people to achieve liberality of attitudes to other cultures, an essential pre-condition of national unity in a country in which there are many cultures.

Government efforts.

Governmental efforts is essential for bringing success to all the projects outlined above, because without official blessing, there is little that education can achieve. This cannot be doubted because there are many agencies which are working against the development of emotional integration. So long as the Government fails to check agencies which encourage linguism, communalism, religious bigotry, and other disruptive forces, education will not be able to achieve the goal. One of the first steps in this direction is control over destructive political parties. In every part of the country laws should be enacted to prevent any individual from giving expression to linguism, communalism, regionalism, casteism, untouchability, etc. This should be followed up by a strict application of these laws.

It is evident from the foregoing description of the measures for increasing emotional integration that these measures must be both positive and negative. Adoption of all these measures would be a positive step. The negative step of destroying all obstacles in the way of emotional integration is no less important. For this, teachers, administrators and guardians will have to work collectively. Then along the country will witness solid national integration in spite of religious pluralism.

 

 

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A(Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D

Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

I like to see a man proud of the place in which he lives.  I like to see a man live so that his place will be proud of him.  ~Abraham Lincoln

Nation can be defined as that human group which lives in an area with clearly defined geographical boundaries, united by common traditions, common interests and common sentiments, possessing a desire for unity and common political ambitions. Elements which go to make up the nation are of two kinds—the objective and the subjective. Among the objective elements are geographical unity, unity of language, unity of race, a common religion, political unity and independence. But the objective elements are of greater significance. According to Renan and Mill, it must also possess consciousness of a glorious past, feelings of pride and shame, happiness and pain, common experience and sacrifice, true glory, allied to this past. The chief among these emotive elements are common interests and traditions, common political ambitions, and, most important of all, a community feeling, or we feeling.

Community we feeling or simply we feeling is such an important constituent of nationhood, which MacIver has defined nationally in terms of this feeling. He defines nationality as a kind of community feeling that has its origin in certain historical circumstances, and which is also strengthened by such strong common psychological factors that individuals who experience it desire to form a specific and even an individual government of their own. Oppenheimer has commented that consciousness of nationality makes the nation.

Historical Retrospect

There are some people who think that India has never existed as a unified, undivided and indivisible unit in the past. Sir John Seeley said that India was not a political name but only a geographical expression like Europe or Africa. Sir John Strachey wrote: “This is the first and the most essential thing to learn about India that there is not and never did an India or even any country of India possess, according to European ideas, any sort of unity, physical, political, social or religious. No Indian nation, no people of India’ of which we hear so much.” As late as 1930, the Simon Commission referred to India as a “conglomeration of races and religions.” It is not only foreigners but many Indian thinkers also believe that India never existed as a nation and there was no national integration in India in any period of her history. So far as foreigners are concerned, they appear to be biased against India and her peoples’ capacity for unity.

Even a general survey of Indian religion, philosophy, mythology, legends, art, literature and architecture will make it abundantly clear that India existed as a single homogeneous, well-united nation in the past. May be there are diversities, but they should not be mistaken for disunity. This diversity is a special feature of India’s unity, it provides colour to Indian life. All the discordant ‘isms’, that have no doubt succeeded in creating certain spells of unfortunate trends towards disintegration, have their origins outside India and have been imported into India by vested interests. Before that India continued to be the torch-bearer to entire humanity—a nation with & rich sonorous music of unity.

If we look back and analyse our history, culture and heritage, the first thing that strikes us very forcibly is the underlying spirit of our fundamental unity in diversity in all times and ages. The concept of India as a well-knit, composite and homogeneous entity, transcending all her external diversities is an eloquent theme that runs throughout our literature, epics and folklore.

During the Vadic period religion and language .played a pre-eminent role in fostering national and emotional integration. Religion occupied an enviable position as an agent of unity. The common devotion of the people to religion evoked affinity and sympathy for each other. The rise of new religions like Jainism and Buddhism and new sects like Shaivism and Vaishnavism created a few short intervals in the total allegiance of Indians to Hinduism. Invocation to the rivers Ganga and Jamuna as also to Krishna and Kauvery is common to the rituals performed by the Hindus all over the country. The barriers of caste, race, language or region did not exist br any material purpose. The four tirths established by Shankaracharya at four corners of the country, namely Shringeri, Puri, Dwarika and Badrinath are unshakable pillars of India’s emotional unity. It is clear that the evils of Castism did not exist in those days. Do the temples of Tanjore not belong to every Indian ? Is every Indian not proud of Ajanta and lora paintings. The Meghadoot of Kali das brought the South and  North under one canvas.

During the medieval period a new society appeared in India ’With its distinct religion, customs and traditions. But the Bhakti movement preached an understanding among the people practising different religions and observing different customs. The great _bakhti reformers like Kabir, Nanak, Chaitnya, Tukaram belonged to all. Akbar, the Great Mughal, who ruled practically the whole of India as one unit, practised toleration,

With the establishmentt of the English rule the. unity and understanding that had  existed for ages, though certainly weakened by certain factors, and was badly shaken up. Britishers played ‘the game of ‘divide and rule’. They separated the Muslims from, the mainstream of national life and made them believe that they were ‘distinct from the Hindus. In Hindu community itself they created a wedge between the scheduled castes and others. They pitched the English educated urban class against the rural masses. Simultaneously it was under the British rule that a number of new factors like improved means of transport and communication, a common language,  were introduced which were of great help in national integration

The most important phenomenon in New India is the growth of a national consciousness, which ultimately found active expression in the formation of the Indian National Congress, the Muslim League, and other bodies of the kind. Various factors contributed to the development of this national awakening, which was based upon two fundamental principles, viz. the unity of India as a whole and the right of her people to rule themselves.

As with all great national movements, e.g. the French Revolution, there was an intellectual background to this political regeneration. In a previous chapter we have traced the growth of English education in India. It is a matter of common knowledge that a tremendous wave of liberalism was passing over English politics and literature during the nineteenth century. By the study of English literature and European history educated Indians imbibed the spirit of democracy and national patriotism which England unequivocally declared to be her political ideals. Further, the promotion of these sentiments was deliberately encouraged by the liberal statesmanship, which England at first displayed in her policy towards India and other dominions.

From the very beginning the British Government publicly declared its liberal policy towards India. The Charter Act of 1813 definitely laid it down that “it is the duty of this country to promote the interest and happiness of the native inhabitants of the British dominions in India”. This was not only corroborated but even further elucidated by the Parliamentary Committee of 1833 when it laid down “the indisputable principle that the interests of the native subjects are to be consulted in preference to those of Europeans whenever the two come in competition”. Finally came the Queen’s Proclamation of 1858 in which she declared that “We hold ourselves bound to the natives of our Indian territories by the same obligations of duty which bind us to all our other subjects”.

The pronouncement of Queen Victoria acquired a special significance for Indians in view of the democratic constitution granted to Canadian subjects during her reign, followed by similar measures of self-government conceded to other colonies in subsequent times.

All these causes created new aspirations in the minds of educated Indians. They had great faith in the liberal statesmen of Britain and their sense of justice and fair play. They thought that as soon as the Indians could make up a good case and present it well, nothing would be wanting on the part of British liberals to meet their reasonable demands.

The first concrete demand was naturally one for a larger admission of Indians to the higher ranks of the Civil Service. The Civil Service was the “steel-frame” of British administration, and Macaulay did not very much exaggerate the fact when he said in the House of Commons that “even the character of the Governor General was less important than the character and spirit of the servants by whom the administration of India was carried on”. It was obvious to educated Indians that the first step to secure a real and legitimate share in the management of the administration was to get into the higher ranks of the Civil Service in steadily increasing numbers.

A definite pledge was given by the Charter Act of 1833 that no Indian “shall by reason only of his religion, place of birth, descent, colour or any of them be disabled from holding any office or employment under the Company”. This was reiterated in the Queen’s Proclamation of 1858 and the Indian Civil Service Act of 1861. In spite of these promises there was plainly visible a growing reluctance on the part of the British Government to admit Indians in large number to the Civil Service. The failure to fulfil the pledges so repeatedly given is admitted by British statesmen themselves. “Lord Houghton observed that the declaration which stated that the Government of India would be conducted without reference to differences of race, was magnificent but had hitherto been futile.” That the Government did not choose to carry out this policy is admitted by no less an authority than Lord Lytton , the Governor- General. In a confidential despatch on this subject, he stated that “all means were taken of breaking to the heart the words of promise they had uttered to the ear”.

Factors leading to the growth of Indian Nationalism

Following are some factors which contributed in the growth of national consciousness in India:

Racial Pride of the British Rulers

The British rulers considered themselves to be racially superior to Indians and were proud of their complexion, blood and culture. They looked down upon Indians as uncivilised and dubbed them as ‘black people’ and hated to mix with them. Indians were not allowed to travel in the same railway compartments in which Englishmen travelled and were debarred from going to clubs and hotels visited by Englishmen. The Arms Act of Lord Lytton declared keeping of arms without licence a crime but the Europeans were made an exception. This discriminatory Act angered the Indians. Surendranath Banerjee aptly remarked, “The Arms Act imposed on us a badge of racial inferiority.” In the matter of justice, Europeans were given preferential treatment. While Englishmen were let off or lightly punished even for murders and brutalities committed by them, Indians were severely punished for minor offences. G.O. Trevelyan pointed out in 1864: “the testimony of a single one of our countrymen has more weight with the court than that of any number of Hindoos, a circumstance which puts a terrible instrument of power into the hands of an unscrupulous and grasping Englishman.” The policy of racial discrimination led to acute resentment among the educated Indians against the foreign rulers. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru wrote, “there were two worlds: the world of the British officials and the world of India’s millions and there was nothing in common between them except a common dislike for each other.”

Western Education

The British rulers introduced the teaching of the English language in schools and colleges to get a regular supply of clerks and babus to work in the administrative offices established by them. Knowledge of English proved to be a boon as the young men educated through the English medium were introduced to the liberal ideas of the West, such as freedom, democracy and nationalism. They were highly impressed by the teachings of Garibaldi, Mazzini, Rousseau, Thomas Paine and other liberal thinkers of the 19th century. Revolutionary ideas contained in the writings of these thinkers brought about social awareness and national consciousness among the educated Indians. In the words of Lord Ronaldshay, “The new wine of Western learning went into the heads of the young Indians. They drank deep from the source of liberty and nationalism. Their whole out look underwent a revolution. Influenced by these national and democratic ideas, Indian intelligentsia looked to the problems facing the country from an all-India angle.”

English proved to be a link language through which people living in widely separated regions began to communicate. It became a lingua franca of the country. Official and business correspondence began to be conducted through English. The knowledge of English was thus responsible for the unification of a vast country inhabited by people speaking different languages and dialects. Naturally, the first leaders of the national movement were those young men who had acquired an English education.

Economic Exploitation

With the establishment of British rule in India, the country’s economy was crippled. Indian handicrafts began to die out. India, which had won world-wide fame as an exporter of fine cloth, was turned into an importer of machine-made cloth and other factory goods from England Millions of craftsmen and artisans were thrown out of employment, resulting in poverty everywhere. With this change in the pattern of trade, every class of Indian society was adversely affected. In the words of Blunt, “the vice of Indian finance was that the Finance Minister of India looked more to the interests of Great Britain than to those of India.” A huge amount of money was drained off from India for the payment of salaries and pensions to British officers. Apart from this, millions of pounds were taken away by the British businessmen out of India through their import and export trade. Lord Salisbury, the Secretary of State, aptly said, “the British Rule was bleeding India white.” The net result of this exploitation was that the average income of an Indian fell below the level of subsistence. There were repeated famines which caused untold havoc. Each famine was followed by an epidemic which took a heavy toll of life. The Indian people became physically weak and morally crippled. Ruthless exploitation of the country’s resources made them miserable and brought about disaffection and resentment against an alien regime.

Discrimination in Services

In the early years of British rule in India, all important positions in the administration and army were held by Englishmen. Indians were distrusted and not assigned any position of trust and responsibility. In the later part of British rule, some Indians were given posts in lower grades in the services but preference for higher services was always given to men of British origin. A general notion prevailed among the British that Indians, howsoever qualified they might be, were inferior to Englishmen. Indians were mocked at as ‘drawers of water and hewers of wood.’ The Charter Act of 1833 and Queen Victoria’s Proclamation of 1858 had promised equality of opportunity in employment, but these well-intentioned pronouncements were never translated into action. Higher services remained the sole preserve of the Europeans. Garret rightly says, “the policy of excluding Indians from the higher ranks of services was responsible for arousing national spirit among the people of India.” In the army the Indians were deliberately excluded from the artillery section.

The bitter sense of discrimination by the British against the Indians came to the fore during the Viceroyalty of Lord Ripon. The Viceroy, who was a man of liberal views, was in favour of giving the Indian judges authority to hear cases against the Europeans. His law member, Mr. Iibert, drafted a bill which was to give Indian magistrates the right to try Europeans for criminal offences. The English opposed the Bill vehemently.

Lord Ripon bowed before the storm of opposition and amended the Bill. The European offenders were given the right to demand trial by Jury. Half the jurors had to be Europeans. The Bill failed in ending discrimination, which it aimed to do, as Indians were not given a similar privilege. The Iibert Bill controversy exercised a crucial influence on the growth of nationalism. S.N. Banerji rightly remarked, “No self-respecting Indian could sit idle under the fierce light of that revelation. It was a call to that high patriotic duty of those who understood its significance.” Lord Salisbury rightly described the British pledges to Indians as political hypocrisy. [5]

Reform Movements

The second half of the 19th century was a period of Indian awakening and reformation. The Brahmo Samaj, the Ramakrishna Mission, the Arya Samaj, the Theosophical Society and many socio-religious movements not only fought against social evils but also generated confidence and national pride in the people who had sunk down to the lowest level of social and moral degradation. These movements reminded the people of the excellence and greatness of their cultural heritage. Swami Vivekananda, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Mrs Annie Besant, Mahadev Govind Ranade and many other social reformers aroused in them an urge for freedom. They proved by the force of their arguments that Indian culture was superior to that of the West and there was no reason for Indians to be cowed down by the westerners. They gave people a new sense of self-respect and a new pride in the past and these in the long run proved to be important factors in building up a new India. Swami Dayanand Saraswati, the founder of the Arya Samaj, gave the slogan, “India for the Indians”. In the words of Sarkar and Datta, “the religious and social reformers of the 19th century in India impressed upon the minds of the people the greatness of the ancient thought of their country and thus served to awaken in them a keen desire for national regeneration on the basis of the best in the past.”

Growth of Indian National Congress

The growth of the political organisations like Indian national congress was the upshot of the national consciousness of the unified India. Indian nationalism grew partly as a result of colonial policies and partly as a reaction to the colonial policies. The growth of the Indian national consciousness was first noticed in the latter half of the 19th century. Prior to this a number of scattered uprisings lacked the enthusiasm to incite the nationalist feeling. But with the establishment of the Indian Nationals congress, the fragmented political feeling achieved a common front. Hence the growth of the Indian National Congress in 1885, led to the growth of Indian nationalism in the closing decade of the 19th century and the first decade of the 20th century. Right from the foundation of the Indian national Congress, the nationalist feeling and consciousness received a great impetus. Following the establishment of the Indian National Congress, several other political organizations came into existence representing the nationalist feeling of India.

British Oppression and Exploitation

In the aim to establish their political authority in India, the British completely exploited the Indian resources, which undoubtedly resulted in the growth of Indian Nationalism. The Imperial British conquered the entire length of the country. The British oppression ultimately imposed political unity in India. Despite the imperialist efforts to sow the seeds of communal disintegration, the establishment of the political unity fostered the spirit of one mindedness and at the same time prompted the nationalist feeling.

The impact of the British rule on the Indian economy was disastrous. Moreover the great famine was also the result of this economic exhaustion. The British Government levied unjust taxes on the Indian farmers, which shattered the economy of the Indians colleges completely. Thus the economic policies of the Government inculcated the spirit of nationalism among the Indians. The educated intellectuals made the common people aware about the ill effects of the economic policies of the British. Thus the growth of Indian nationalism received a powerful stimulus in the process of Indian hatred against the government`s economic policies.

Development of Means of Transport and Communication

The British rulers established a wide network of roads and railways to promote their commercial interests and maintain a rigid administrative control over India. The railways proved to be a blessing for the country in as much as its various parts separated by rivers, hills and mountains were connected with one another and brought closer together.

Lines of communication knit together the vast country and its geographical unity became a tangible reality. It enabled educated Indians living in different parts of the country to come in contact with one another and discuss the problems facing the country as a whole. Development of roads and railways made it possible to mobilize public opinion on a national scale. Some of the educated young men went abroad and had the opportunity to study the working of the free and democratic institutions of Europe. It infused in them a new love for freedom and liberty. It was this feeling which inspired them to launch a movement for the liberation of the country

Development of rapid means of Transport and Communication also led to the growth of Indian Nationalism. The provincial political unrest, which was limited within a small area, came in contact with the nationalist current of the whole India. More than anything, the growth of Indian Railways has unified the country. According to the historians, the railways have facilitated the growth of Indian nationalism more than any other advantages. Moreover, the development of Modern Postal System and the introduction of Electric Telegraph helped to unify the country. As a result the disjointed political consciousness came in contact with each other, which helped for the emergence of a consciousness with a national colour. The growth of various political organisations like All India Trade Union Congress, All India Kishan Sabha etc would not have come into existence unless the growth of efficient transport and communication.

Growth of Education

The introduction of the modern system of education opened the opportunities for the assimilation of the modern western ideas with the Indian ideals. As a result, the political consciousness of the west blended with the Indian political thinking. The British took a momentous decision in 1835 to introduce the English education and the study of western philosophy in India. The idea of liberty, self-government made them conscious of the oppression and diplomacy of the British rulers in India. In this way the sense of Swaraj and independence developed the nationalist feeling among the Indians. The newly educated class being conscious of the citizen rights could form a political consciousness of their own. They began to make the common people aware of their rights and duties and aided in the growth of Indian nationalism.

The Vernacular Press

The Vernacular Press was the chief instrument through which the nationalists spread the message of patriotism and modern economic, social and political ideas and created an all-India consciousness.

During the second half of the nineteenth century, a number of newspapers, journals, magazines and books appeared in Indian languages, which criticised British administration and pointed out its defects. In 1877, there were as many as 62 newspapers appearing in Indian languages. The total circulation of these papers was calculated as 1,00,000. The Vernacular Press Act of Lord Lytton in 1878 laid down that the editors of the vernacular newspapers were to sign a bond to publish nothing that would create feelings of dissatisfaction against the government. But the English language press was kept outside its purview. This discriminatory and repressive measure of Lord Lytton inflamed the feelings of bitterness among the Indians against the British. In spite of all the restrictions, the Indian Press continued to criticise the British administration and espoused the national cause. The Vernacular Press Act was withdrawn by Lord Ripon in 1882. Steadily and silently, Indian newspapers infused a spirit of patriotism and nationalism in the people and provided a direction to the national struggle for emancipation.

Many Indian writers brought out books based on patriotism. Bankim Chandra’s famous book ‘Anand Math’, the Bible of modern Bengali patriotism, provided very great inspiration to the people. Vande Mataram, the national song of India was adopted from this very book.Rabindranath Tagore in Bengali, Lakshminath Bezbarua in Assamese, Vishnu Shastri Chiplunkar in Marathi, Subramanya Bharati in Tamil, Bhartendu Harishchandra in Hindi, and Altaf Hussain Mali in Urdu were some of the nationalist writers of this period.

Emergence of Printing Press

The emergence of the modern Press both in English and local languages, was one of the significant reasons for the growth of Indian nationalism in the late 19th and the early 20th centuries. The British set up Printing Presses in India and published newspaper in English. Gradually the Vernacular Press came into existence, which was developed in the pattern of the English newspapers. Several Acts were passed to stop the circulations of the vernacular Press as they revealed the oppressive and the repressive policies of the British the Government. The Indian press had played a notable role in mobilising the public opinions, organising political movements, fighting over political controversy and promoting nationalism. The newspapers like The Indian Mirror, The Bengalee, Anandabazar Patrika, Bombay Chronicle, The Hindu Patriot, The Marhatta, Keshari etc exposed the excesses of British Indian administration. Press became the primary medium of public education and probably played the most important part in forming the Public opinion.

Rise of the Middle Class

By the end of the nineteenth century, a middle class comprising businessmen, industrialists and financiers came up. This class was keenly conscious of the fact that British rule was a great hindrance in the path of industrial progress and prosperity of the country. The Indian business community had to work against heavy odds. They had to carry on their business in competition with the most advanced industries of England. The British rulers were averse to the industrial development of the country and wanted to keep India merely a supplier of raw materials and a potential market for dumping goods manufactured in England. Severe checks were imposed on Indian industries. Almost every article of daily use like sewing needles, sewing and printing materials, soaps, cosmetics, etc., were imported from England.

The new industrial class of India realised to their dismay that they could not prosper under British rule. Forced by the circumstances, they joined the national movement and helped it with money. The role of the Indian bourgeoisie (middle class of businessmen and industrialists) was, thus, no less significant in the freedom struggle of India.

The administrative and the economic innovations of the British gave rise to a new class called middle class. The middle class was conscious of their social position and was properly educated. The middle class intellectuals formed the dynamic minority in India. This class had a sense of liberal idea and political thought of themselves and gradually they infused the whole India with its spirit. This class provided leadership to the Indian National Congress in its stages of growth.

Socio Religious Movements

In the nineteenth century the educated Indians began to analyse their religious beliefs and customs and social practices in the light of the modern knowledge of the western science and philosophy. As a result various social and the religious movement came into existence, which liberate the society from the social evils. These movements liberated the societies from superstitions like Casteism, Untouchability etc. Hence it opened the opportunity of free mixings of all sects, caste, creeds etc. In these circumstances, people belonging to different sects shared their political thoughts and ideals in a common platform. Thus the progressive character of the socio religious movements all the more developed the nationalism throughout the whole India.

Thus the growth of Indian nationalism was not a sudden outcome; rather it was the result of the gradual process of development due to the oppression and the repression of the British Government.

Development of Nationalism in the New Generation

The following suggestions can be given for generating nationalism in the younger generation:

1. Development of a national language.

The first prerequisite for developing nationalism is the development of a national language in the country. In India, this position can be occupied only by Hindi. When the succeeding generations learn Hindi and use it, the feeling will gradually take root that India is one nation.

2. Development of a national literature. Development of a national language will lead to the development of a national literature. With the propagation of Hindi in every part of the country, a new literature will be created, which will be read everywhere. Apart from encouraging national unity, it will also enable the people to create a literature which encourages national power and protects the cultural heritage of the country.

3. National educational programme. In India the spread of education is the responsibility of both the central and the state governments but as yet, it has not been possible to formulate a national programme of education with the result that one can see considerable disparity in the various parts of the country. In order to evolve a feeling of nationalism the country should have unified educational programme which should be flexible enough, to take within its purview the differences that exist between one region and another. This will lead to a certain similarity in the education in all parts, and make possible the application of a single curriculum through which national literature on the all India scale can be created.

4. Observance of national festivals. The feeling of nationalism can also be strengthened by enthusiastic observance of national festivals, independence day, republic day, children’s day, teacher’s day and the birthdays of all great men.

5. Respect for national symbols. Another way of fostering the feeling of nationalism is to generate and show respect for national symbols such as the national anthem, the national flag, the national bird, etc. Now-a-days the national anthem is played after every film show and people are required to stand at attention to show their respect for it. This also helps growth of national sentiment.

6. Improvements of curriculum. In order to help the development of the national sentiment, it is desirable that the teaching of history, civics, etc., should be conducted in such a way that it helps national sentiment. This can be done by preventing the publication of any material in text books and other media of publication which hurts national sentiments and pride. The government seizes all copies of such material and punishes the publishers and authors.

7. Cooperation of political parties. It is impossible to generate nationalism if the political parties fail to cooperate. Many political parties not only hinder the growth of this sentiment, but actively engage in activities calculated to harm the national interest. Such political parties owe their allegiance to other nations, show no respect for national symbols and spread anti-national feelings among the people. As far as possible political parties should be prevented from indulging in such activities.

8. Cooperation of teachers. Education for nationalism can never be really successful without the active co-operation ofteachers. For this reason the educators must themselves possess this feeling, because then they can set an example for the educands. It will then be even easier to foster the national sentiment among the younger generation.

Synthesis of Nationalism and Internationalism

Nowadays many thinkers object to the use of education for fostering the national sentiment because they have come across many bad effects of narrow nationalism in many countries and seen that education for nationalism has stood in the way of the growth of internationalism. The education for nationalism that was given in Italy and Germany, for example, was completely opposed to internationalism. It is in connection with this one-sided education that Bertrand Russellpointed out that children are taught to exhibit complete devotion and worship to the state of which they are citizens. The lesson taught to them is that worship of the state consists in doing as directed by the state. For this they are taught distorted versions of history, politics and economics so that they should not be critical of the blind national faith expected of them. They are acquainted with the evil actions of other nations but not of their own, although the truth is that eachnation has been unjust to other nations. It is unquestionably true that if the facts of history are distorted in order to propagate the sentiment of nationalism it is undesirable. But this danger is not peculiar to nationalism alone. It is true of almost all human relations that as they become deeper and stronger they also become narrower, and that they impede the growth of any liberal attitude. If, for example, an individual has intense love for his family, this may come in the way of his loving his nation, but this does not imply that love for nation can exist only at the cost of love for family. Proper and healthy love for the family does not impede love for the nation, it helps it to grow. In the same way healthy nationalism also does not preclude the possibility of internationalism. As Dr. Louise has said that it is essential to strengthen one’s love for one’s motherland, but this does not make it proper to violate the cannons of humanity, for the external benefit of one’s own nation. It is obvious, therefore, that education must not only propagate nationalism but must also encourage internationalism. The plan for national education presented by such eminent educationists as Mahatma Gandhi, Sri Aurobindo, Vivekanand, Rabindra Nath Tagore, etc. has kept this in view, that nationalism and internationalism should grow harmoniously. That is the reason why Rabindra Nath Tagore’s Shantiniketan turned into an ideal institution for education in internationalism. According to Tagore the educand’s aim is to reach the level at which there is no distinction between nationalism and internationalism.

 

 

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D.

Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed.

Former Principal, A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

“Since we supposedly are teaching individuals, not groups of individuals, it is the function of the school within its budgetary personnel and curricular limitations to provide adequate schooling for every learner no matter how much he differs from every other learner.” Crow and Crow (1973)–

Individual differences are the variations from one person to another on variables such as self-esteem, rate of cognitive development or degree of agreeableness. Historically, psychological science has overlooked individual differences in favour of focusing on average behaviour.

It is essential to understand that the concept of individual differences is the basis upon which one child is compared to another. An understanding of individual differences provides the foundation for recognizing normal variations as well as extreme differences among children and, thus, for identifying those who may have special needs. The existence of these differences constitutes the fundamental premise underlying the development of standardized educational and psychological tests.. In general, understanding of the various developmental levels is enhanced by familiarity with the concept of individual differences

All in all, the study of individual differences helps to understand not only what makes humans similar to one another, but also what makes them different. By considering the variations that can occur from one person to another, one can best understand the full range of human behaviour.

Children develop at different rates. This, in turn, creates variations among individuals (i.e., individual differences). Again, these differences can be either qualitative or quantitative. For children in any preschool classroom setting, the differences in temperament, personality, intelligence, achievement, and physical factors such as height and weight, are noteworthy and reflect a wide range of normal variation. Some children grow rapidly and others grow more slowly. There also are racial and gender developmental variations.

It is important to understand that the concept of individual differences is the basis upon which one child is compared to another. Also, the existence of these differences constitutes the fundamental premise underlying the development of standardized educational and psychological tests. An understanding of individual differences provides the foundation for recognizing normal variations as well as extreme differences among children and, thus, for identifying those who may have special needs. In general, understanding of the various developmental levels is enhanced by familiarity with the concept of individual differences.

The aim of education is to enable each student to attain all-round development according to his/her own attributes. To achieve this, students should be provided with suitable assistance and guidance in accordance with their abilities and learning needs, so that they can develop their potential to the full.

Each student is a unique individual, different in cognitive and affective development, social maturity, ability, motivation, aspiration, learning styles, needs, interests and potential. Apart from this, there are other factors underlying student differences. These include innate differences in intelligence, differences in social and economic background, variations in past learning experiences, and perhaps variations in the level of congruence between the learner and the curriculum. In view of these factors, catering for individual differences is intended neither to narrow the gap between individuals nor to even out their abilities and performance. It should aim for understanding why students are able or unable to learn well and finding appropriate ways to help them learn better.

We have the conviction that all students can learn. To address the needs of students, teachers should provide them with a variety of learning opportunities for effective learning, such as using diversified resources rather than focusing on textbooks, and making use of a spectrum of intelligences and multi-sensory experiences only to tap the different potential of students. Schools can adopt different modes of assessment to find out the strengths and weaknesses of students before deciding on the appropriate curriculum, and learning and teaching strategies for them.

Important variables for building an effective environment:

The important variables include:

A Humane Environment- This is an atmosphere in which each learner is accepted and valued as an individual of dignity and worth. It is one in which caring for self and others is nurtured. It is an ongoing process that requires consistent teacher responsiveness to student’s social and emotional needs.

An Effective Management Structure- Such a structure is one in which there is order and discipline and in which expectations are  known. Emphasis is placed on positive approaches and development of self discipline and responsibility. Resources to be used  are organised for immediate access. Students know where things are  and what to do. Records are kept by both learners and teacher in order that both may be always aware of where the student is has been, is ready next to grow. There is a physical environment in which large group, small group and individual student activities can occur simultaneously as needed. This means that experiences and space are organised  so that totally teacher directed partially teacher directed and student directed activities occur at same time without one interfering with  the other.

Teaching Skill- -These are the basic elements.  The teacher must teach. The teacher’s task is to motivate and captures the attending behaviour of each  students, to teach to provide  monitored practice and to ensure that learning develops to the application level.This requires that a teacher consciously  principles of learning, diagnosis, prescription , conferencing, and evaluation as she/he continue to work towards improving of instruction.

General Areas of Individual Differences:

Cultural and geographic environment

Many studies have led to the conclusion that individuals differ in respect of nature, physical traits, interest and personality, etc. Such a difference is only natural since their cultural and geographic environment is distinctive. In school the differences that the children exhibit is the outcome of their different families and their communities. Attitudes towards education and authority differ in each family, culture and class.

The differences of attitudes results in differences among children. Besides these attitudes, the child’s emotional, social, aesthetic and moral development is influenced by his family and the neighbourhood.

Intelligence:

Individuals are seen differing in considerable measure in respect of their general intelligence. Children who are either above or below this level of intelligences require special educational methods and conditions.

Special Abilities

The individual’s differences in respect of special abilities, in addition to the general intelligence, are also important since special professions and specialized fields of vocation all need certain specific abilities. Abilities of this kind are concerned with mental, artistic, personality or motor ability.

Alacrity in Learning

This difference is dependent upon their maturity and educational background. Differences in the alacrity of learning result in benefits accruing from formal education.

Difference in the quickness or alacrity in learning is visible not only in children of different ages but also among children in the same age group.

Motor Ability

Till the individual attains adulthood, his manual dexterity, rate of muscular movement and resistance to fatigue develops continually. In this manner, the same individual in different ages and different individuals in the same age group manifest considerable differences in manual dexterity.

Sex Differences

Makneimer and Terman discovered the following differences between men and women:

(i) Women have greater skill in memory while men have greater motor ability.

(ii) Female handwriting is superior while men excel in mathematical logic.

(iii) Women show greater skill in making sensory distinctions of taste, pain, smell, etc., while men show greater reaction and consciousness of size-weight illusion.

(iv) Possessing greater linguistic ability women are superior to men in languages, similitude’s, word building, compositions and use of long sentences etc. On the other hand, men are superior in physics and chemistry.

(v) Women are more susceptible to suggestion while there are three times as many colour-blind men as there are women.

(vi) Women are better than men in mirror drawing. Faults of speech etc., in men were found to be three times of such faults in women.

(vii) Young girls take interest in stories of love, fairy tales, stories of the school and home and day-dreaming and show various levels in their play. On the other hand, boys take interest in stories of bravery, science, war and scouting, stories of games and sports, scouts stories and games of occupation and skill.

Difference of Interests

As has been pointed out, the difference in sex leads to a difference in interests. Similarly, factors such as family background, level of development, differences of nationality and race, etc., cause difference of interests. Economic differences are seen causing differences in the children’s interests, tendencies and character, etc.

Personality

One specific person may exhibit the main broad characteristics of one class of personality, he cannot be said to belong to only that class of personality as the differences between various personalities are so subtle and minute that it is not scientifically feasible to divide them into classes

Educational Implications of the Psychology of Individual Difference

In the real world the teacher in a classroom meets students who like the dolls in a row are connected. Because of age, years in school or some other common criterion, a group is formed and a  classroom identity is established. Then when students begin to interact, their individuality comes through. No two are alike. There is variability found in student’s emotional social and physical reaction as well as their intellectual readiness to learn specific concepts or skills.

The notion that individuals differ in various abilities, capacities and personality characteristics, compels the teachers to pay attention on the following facts:

1.            In any group there are individuals, who deviate from the norms of the group. Along with the average, the presence of very superior and extremely dull is equally possible in his class.

2.            Every teacher should try to have the desired knowledge of the abilities, capacities, interests, attitudes, aptitudes and other personality traits of his pupils and in the light of this knowledge should render individual guidance to children for maximum utilization of their potentialities.

3.            It is wrong to expect uniformity in gaining proficiency or success in a particular field from a group of students. On account of their subnormal intelligence, previous background, lack of proper interest, aptitude and attitude some students have to lag behind in some or other area of achievement.

4.            All students cannot be benefited by one particular method of instruction and a uniform and rigid curriculum.

Teacher’s Role in Knowing Individual Differences:

The challenge to the teacher is to accept each learner, no matter what the individual pattern is like. Then, it is the teachers task to help each child grow and learn as as he/she can.

Knowing the presence of individual differences the teacher is not perturbed at the failure of some of his students since such failure is only to be expected from below-average students.

This can help him to form the proper attitude towards the brilliant and the dull-witted students. It is only too evident that very good results cannot be expected from dull-witted or mediocre students.

The teacher does not come to expect successes that are impossible. Individual difference makes it clear that all aspects of the personality are mutually related and to develop any one aspect it is essential that all the aspects be developed

The objective of modern education is the harmonious development of the child. In this connection, the  knowledge of individual differences can be quite helpful to teacher.

Any effort to bring all or a majority of the students in the class to the same level is futile since some 50 or odd percentage of them will in variably remain below this level.

Improvements in atmosphere, method of teaching, and the apparatus of education cannot lead to the satisfactory teaching of all students since their individual ability to learn differs widely.

Provisions for ‘individual differences’ in Schools

Individualization of instruction is important because it represents a conscious effort to reach desired goals for students. It is not and should never, an end in itself.

Realization of the above facts or some more of their nature makes us think that we must have some provision for the wide individual differences among our pupils in our schools.

How can we accomplish this task is a pertinent question to be asked at this stage. In fact, to provide adequate schooling or learning experience for every learner according to his individuality is not a simple task. However, the following suggestions can be helpful for any teacher:

Proper knowledge of individual personalities-

The first step in making provisions for individual differences is to know abilities, capacities, interests, aptitudes and other personality traits of individual pupils. For this purpose, frequent assessment in the form of intelligence tests, cumulative record card, interest inventories, attitude scales, aptitude tests and measures for assessing personality traits shall be carried out.

Ability grouping-

In the light of results derived from various tests of knowing individual differences in terms of individual potentialities in various dimensions, the students in a class or area of activity can be divided into homogeneous groups. Such divisions can prove beneficial in adjusting the method of instruction to varying individual differences.

Adjusting the curriculum-

To meet the requirement of varying individual differences among the pupils, the curriculum should be as flexible and differentiated as possible. It should have the provision for a number of diversified courses and curriculum experiences so that the pupils may get opportunity to study and work in the areas of their own interests and abilities. It should provide adjustment to suit the local requirements and potentialities of students of different groups.

Adjusting the methods of teaching-

Considering the varying individual differences, adjustment with regard to the adoption of methods of teaching is very effective. Every teacher should be somewhat free to formulate his own plan and strategy and adopt different instructional procedures which he finds most suited to different pupils. He should follow different procedures or methods of instruction to suit the requirements of varying ability groups of his pupils.

Adopting social programs or methods for individualizing instruction-

Schools may also adopt some social programs or methods of teaching like the Dalton plan, the Winnetka plan, project method or use programmed learning material for enabling students to learn at their own individual pace.

Other causes of individualizing instruction-

For the purpose of individualizing instruction a few practical measures can also prove beneficial:

•             The student strength of the class or section should be made as small as possible.

•             The teacher should try to pay individual attention to the group under instruction.

•             The teacher should keep in view the individual difference of his students while engaging them in drill or practice work in the class-room or assigning home-task.

•             In case where ability grouping is not possible and more specifically under the prevalent system of class teaching, special coaching and guidance program for both the dull and the gifted children are most helpful.

Once a program is set in motion, the teacher has to decide at each decision point what is best to do. The teaching climate will never be totally responsive to students’ needs. If a teacher has management and teaching skills, however, it is possible to more nearly approximate an ideal arrangement. Vital procedures include knowing how content to be taught is structured, and then organizing it for instruction. Next, identification or development of appropriate resource materials is done. This is followed by development of ongoing, simple but accurate record keeping systems kept both by teachers and students. These records should be designed to provide immediate feedback. Finally, formal and informal interaction patterns, including conferences need to be established to ensure that students and teachers have oral as well as written feedback. With these components initiated, students and teachers know where they are and have necessary foundation for making wise decisions about what next to do.

Thus, the problem of individual differences can be tackled with multi dimensional tasks. The teacher, school authorities, the parents and the government as well as voluntary agencies – all should join hands to meet the individual requirements of children who possess tremendous individual differences.

 

“Each mind has its own method”

Emerson, 1841

“In a world as empirical as ours, a youngster who does not know what he is good at will not be sure what he is good for”

Fridenberg, 1959

 

 

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D.

Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed.

Former Principal, A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

“When I eat food I do it consciously, when I assimilate it I do it unconsciously: when the food is manufactured in to blood, it is done unconsciously: when out of the blood all the different parts of my body are strengthened: it is done unconsciously. And yet it I who am doing all this; there can not be twenty people in this one body. How do I know that I do it, and nobody else?  It may be urged that my business is only too eat and assimilate the food, and that somebody else does the strengthening of the body by the food for me. That cannot be; because it can be demonstrated that almost every action at which we are now unconscious can be brought up to the plane of consciousness. The heart is beating apparently without our control; none of us can control the heart; it goes on its own way. But by practice men can bring even the heart under control, until it will just beat at will, slowly or quickly, or almost stop. Nearly every part of he body can be brought under control. What does this show? It shows that we also perform the functions, which are beneath consciousness, only we are performing them unconsciously.-

Swami Vivekananda

There is a strong controversy whether or not the super conscious experience of an individual can be verified by other people.  But in the religious history of the world we find that there have been  few cases in which men and ,women have stumbled into mystic realizations even without going through discipline or training. Such cases are known in India and other parts of Asia and Europe.

The scientific person likes to know if there is  any method by which one can know these experiences?. It is true, that these methods are not like scientific laboratory experiments. In the laboratory we objectively study external phenomena which are separate from us. But in studying the facts of super conscious realization we take up an altogether different method. The systems of study and investigation are subjective. We train-the mind itself. Nevertheless, these methods are scientific so far as universality and possibility of verification are concerned.

God is” still an intellectual conception or belief based on books and the words of others. He is not a fact of experience. Conceptual knowledge of God and actual experience of Him are quite different; in fact, there is a world of difference between them. The effect of such experience of God, shows that one must have superconscious realization for immediate and direct knowledge of God. Therefore, verification is the best confirmation or proof of religious experiences, and as such it is scientific. The methods are also scientific, as they lead to the realization of religious truth. It is often argued that these experiences come to a man through divine grace and divine intervention, and we cannot do anything about them. Sometimes devout persons seem to think that it is sacrilegious even to consider adopting spiritual practices to attain the experience of God. They feel that spiritual experiences come only through divine grace,. that our duty is to remain passive so that the divine will and power may function through us.

It may seem that this is a rigid conception of religion. “The standard will appear to be very high, almost beyond the realm of ordinary men. It may be argued that under these conditions there will not be many adherents of religion. After a little consideration we cannot help but be convinced that such a statement is true. God and experiences of God are practically unknown to an average man. To him religion means following certain doctrines and rituals or believing in God and certain great spiritual personalities. We agree that there are some such cases in the religious history of the world, when men and women have had super- conscious experience of God without any effort on their part. But such cases are few and far between in both the East and  the West.. On the other hand, most of the great religious personalities followed systematic practices -which enabled them to reach the goal of life, God-consciousness, after gradually going through., the different mystical experiences.

The Christian mystics who really had the different types of superconscious experiences gave tremendous emphasis to spiritual practices. Also, in some of the  Jewish mystic organizations certain disciplinary processes or devotional practices are advocated for superconscious realization. Some branches of Mohammedanism prescribe methods for the realization of God. Hinduism and Buddhism made scientific investigation Qf these experiences as well as of the methods for attaining them; and, as a result, we find well-developed scientific details in the methods for superconscious realization in the Hindu system.

The explanation in the philosophy of Samkhya and the teachings of Patanjali, and those of other great Hindu  spiritual teachers give us various methods after studying the different temperaments of ,individuals. These methods are called  yoga This word is often grossly misunderstood in the west.

Most people seem to think that yoga is thought reading, fortune telling, “rope tricks,” or expressions of mysterious powers. We need not say “who is responsible for this erroneous interpretation of the ,word. However, we realize  that yoga is a foreign word, and Americans ,are not likely. to  know its proper meaning. Yoga is the preexisting union: Yoga means the realization in direct experience of the preexisting union between the individual consciousness and the universal consciousness. There are different ways of expressing this, including that Atman is one with Brahman, Jivatman is one with Paramatman, or Shiva and Shakti are one and the same. Each of these ways of saying it come from a different viewing point, while they are not essentially different points of view. They all point in the same general direction of union or Yoga. It really signifies union,U,.,being  derived from the root yuj-to yoke. Through yoga “we  are  joined to God. There is no mystery mongering connected  with it. Patanjali defines yoga as the complete control of the  mind-stuff (chitta vrittis).s When the mind is fully controlled,  the Truth reveals Itself. Mental calmness and tranquillity can be attained in various ways through the different yogas’.

As every science has its methods, so has every religion The methods of  attaining the end of religion are called Yoga by us, and the different forms of Yoga that we teach, are adapted to the different natures and temperaments of men. We classify them in the following way, under four heads:-

(1) Karma-Yoga-“Karma Yoga is the selfless devotion of all inner as well as the outer activities as a Sacrifice to the Lord of all works, offered to the eternal as Master of all the soul’s energies and austerities.”
Bhagavad Gita

Karma Yoga is the path of action, service to others, mindfulness, and remembering the levels of our being while fulfilling our actions or karma in the world. The principle of karma yoga is that what we experience today is created by our actions in the past. Being aware of this, all of our present efforts become a way to consciously create a future that frees us from being bound by negativity and selfishness. Karma is the path of self-transcending action.. It is the path chosen primarily by those of an outgoing nature. It purifies the heart by teaching you to act selflessly, without thought of gain or reward.The manner in which a man realises his own divinity through works and duty.

(2) Bhakti-Yoga- The realisation of the divinity through deviation to, and love of a personal God. Bhakti Yoga is the path of devotion, emotion, love, compassion, and service to God and others. All actions are done in the context of remembering the Divine. Seeing the divine in all of creation, bhakti yoga is a positive way to channel the emotions. The path of bhakti provides us with an opportunity to cultivate acceptance and tolerance for everyone we come into contact with. Bhakti yogis express the devotional nature of their path in their every thought, word, and deed—whether they are taking out the trash or calming the anger of a loved one. All people will experience emotions such as love, compassion, and devotion at points along the journey, regardless of which of the four paths of Yoga is predominant.

(3) Raja.Yoga- Raja means “royal,” and meditation is the focal point of this branch of yoga Raja Yoga is a comprehensive method that emphasizes meditation, while encompassing the whole of Yoga. It directly deals with the encountering and transcending thoughts of the mind. The realisation of, a man’s own divinity  through the control of mind. This approach involves strict adherence to the eight “limbs” of yoga as outlined by Patanajli in the Yoga Sutra. Also found in many other branches of yoga, these limbs, or stages, follow this order: ethical standards, yama; self-discipline, niyama; posture, asana; breath extension or control, Pranayama; sensory withdrawl, pratyahara; concentration, dharana; meditation, dhyana; and ecstasy or final liberation, samadhi. Raja yoga attracts individuals who are introspective and drawn to meditation. Members of religious orders and spiritual communities devote themselves to this branch of yoga. However, even though this path suggests a monastic or contemplative lifestyle, entering an ashram or monastery is not a prerequisite to practicing raja yoga. Everybody will become still and quite from sadhana or spiritual practices, will naturally encounter and deal with attractions and aversion, and will meditate, thus touching on Raja Yoga.

(4) Jnana-Yoga-.If we consider bhakti to be the yoga of the heart, then jnana yoga is the yoga of the mind, of wisdom, the path of the sage or scholar Jnana Yoga is the path of knowledge, wisdom, introspection and contemplation. It involves deep exploration of the nature our being by systematically exploring and setting aside false identities. The reaIisation of  man’s own divinity through knowledge .While Jnana Yoga deals with knowledge, wisdom, introspection and contemplation, everybody has a mind and at some point will need to examine it, wherein quiet reflection naturally comes. This path requires development of the intellect through the study of the scriptures and texts of the yogic tradition. The jnana yoga approach is considered the most difficult and at the same time the most direct. It involves serious study and will appeal to those who are more intellectually inclined.

These are all different roads leading to the same centre-God.

According to Hindu psychology, human minds are grouped into four distinct types: intellectual, emotional, activitiest and  meditative. Apart from that, these different types are sub-divided according to the mental structure of innumerable individuals, and everyone-of these types and individuals has distinct methods for spiritual development. Superconscious  realizations are processes of spiritual evolution, so the teachers try to find out the individual characteristics of the different aspirants and accordingly prescribe individual methods to suit their temperaments and mental capacities. However, there are common requisites for all types of minds. . According to Indian spiritual teachers, superconscious experiences are based on the science of ethics and higher psychology For instance, the science of ethics is the ‘foundation of spiritual practices for all temperaments. Without thorough ethical training one cannot expect to have a controlled- mind. The practice of ethical principles and psychology go together. One cannot have the power of concentration unless one tries to control and purify the mind and develop basic ethical qualities. This is what the Christian mystics call the “purgative state and what the Hindus call yama and niyama . When the mind is purified it can then be focused on God.

Patanjali emphasized that inner and outer purification is absolutely necessary for spiritual growth; yama and niyama   are the first steps toward higher realization.  ”God is seen when the mind is perfectly tranquil.” Therefore, ethical practices are a prerequisite for any method of superconscious realization.

The intellectual type of seeker follows the rationalistic- method of distinguishing the truth from the untruth, the real from the unreal, by using the power of discrimination and analysis. This is Jnana Yoga. An adamantine will power is required for this method as transitory phenemena and non-essentials have to be negated and rejected in order to know the permanent, the Absolute. The emotions must be controlled and regulated; in fact, no emotional expression should be permitted because any kind of emotional ex pression presupposes plurality and duality. A follower of  ]nana Yoga must constantly remind himself of unity. Any- thing that arouses the consciousness of multiplicity must be completely rejected. In order to achieve this, one must develop the power of concentration and wiil. This method seems to be quite contrary to the ordinary functionings of human beings, as we are always giving vent to our emotions.

The practice of concentration and meditation in Jnana Yoga is very difficult for an average man or woman as one . has to focus the mind on the “impersonal,” non-bodily, Self- Conscious Aboslute (Sat-chid-ananda, Nirguna Brahman). It is very difficult for an ordinary person who is living on the plan of time-space-causal relationship and name, form, and attributes to conceive anything that is beyond these cate gories. It is true that certain symbols like sound and light are given as the objects of concentration.

There are few persons in the ….world who can start their spiritual practices entirely from the intelltual point of view. They require tremendous discipline and ethical training to begin with this method. It is nice to tell of principles and philosophy; but it is altogether a different matter to practice the life of intellect; and it is still harder to see the oneness of life and existence in ordinary human behavior. In fact, a follower of Jnana Yoga, or the intellectual path, must try to find unity and divinity in every thought and action. He must try to find the Absolute beyond the relative. This must be the constant practice, and all activities must be regulated to it. Gradually plurality, and even duality of every type, vanishes. One has to eliminate all  consciousness of difference in everyday life. So it is difficult for an ordinary person to follow this path even though he may be a philosopher. Many persons seem to think that they are Absolutists- in their philosophy but their actions reveal that they are still functioning on the lower plane of relative existence .

A person may  have intellectual flights of AbsoIutisIl yet emotionly, he remains on the very common plane ,where hatred and other such tendencies of differentiation still function. when a man is aware of diversity and does not use his discrimination, he cannot attain knowledge of the Absolute. That is the very reason that Vedanta Aphorisms  teach that one must have a intense desire for higher knowledge and be ready to sacrifice everything for its attainment; that is to say, one must give up longing for anything that arouses consciousness of duality or plurality or that is a reminder of physical existence and separate consciousness. He must possess _keen power of discrimination and, above all, higher ethical qualities. Then alone can one follow the path of analysis. Ethical qualities are the prerequisites of this path. It is, however, possible to take it up after a considerable amount of progress has been made through other practices.

Emotional persons have to follow Bhakti Yoga or the path of love and devotion. The vast majority of the people in the world are predominantly emotional, so it is both convenient and necessary for them to use their emotions for higher spiritual development. We can hardly find a man or woman who has not strong emotional urges, and it is considered wise to express them instead of starving or discarding them. Emotions are great powers; a seeker after truth is, therefore, asked to direct them to an act of God which is suitable to his own temperament. It is not correct to assume that they can be directed to only one particular aspect of God and not to any other. Some people become  narrow and bigoted in their spiritual life and insist on one aspect as the only object of love and devotion for everyone.

All Living Being is infinite . Psychologically speaking, human beings have different mental attitudes and degrees of power. When they try to conceive God with the mind limited by the conditions of time-space relationship, their minds are generally limited . In fact, the mind is extremely limited to the finite conditions of life. As such, they necessarily see God with their limited mental possibilities for the time being.

Therefore, there wiII always remain differences in the under- standing of God. Hindu spiritual philosophers  maintain that these differences and variations do not affect the spiritual growth of an individual. On the contrary, their opinion is that in the beginning of spiritual life everyone must take a particular aspect of God suitable to his own individual inclinations and possibilities. In fact, according to them, spiritual growth is accelerated if one can take an aspect of God for meditation according to his inner nature. It is also fallacious to think that God can be conceived only as father and not as mother, friend, beloved, or child.

All the emotions characteristic in such human relationships can be applied to God according to ,individual temperaments and requirements. That is the very reason the devotional mystics vary in their methods of approach to God.  Few may like to think of Him as their child, while more prefer to look on Him as father or mother, and again others will love God as their friend or beloved because this attitude is best suited to their individual temperaments and this relationship-is natural and spontaneous to them. These relation- ships are called bhavas by Hindu religious philosophers. They are: shanta (placid love for the Creator, Lord, and RuJer); darya (relationship between master and servant);” sakhya (friendship between two friends); vatsalya (love between child and parent); and madhura (sweet relationship between lovers). Some devotees also estab,lish a relationship in which God is the mother and the devotee is the child.

With this method, relationship with God becomes easy and effective, and at the same time the natural innate tendencies are not wasted. Every person has certain spontaneous urges.

Hindu teachers want their followers to use and direct their natural inclinations, for experience proves that people grow immensely in this way as they have the satisfaction of expressing  their innate emotional powers. It has been found by Hindu philosophers that when one cultivates sp.ch a loving relationship with God spiritual growth is accelerated. One reaches the supreme goal of life by following any of these bhavas. However, no bhava should be changed for another until the spiritual aspirant reaches the culmination of a relationship. A person can, however, change one relationship for another after becoming thoroughly established in the  bhava.

In order to cultivate emotional relationships with God one is advised to take up various auxiliary methods, such as external and internal worship . In external worship a devotee tries to think ot God through worship with material ingredients such as flowers, light, incense, perfume, and food. With internal worship, a devotee is required to direct his emotions along with the offerings of inner qualities and attributes and elements of his body and mind.

Some of the aspirants often adopt the repetition of the name of God as a practice. Hindu mystics have developed a science of the repetition of the name of God (mantra ), and according to them, a seeker after truth can have the highest states of superconscious realization by repeating some of the symbolic names of God while meditating on Him at the same time. There are different short names for the various aspects of God. The progress of the devotees greatly depends on the choice of these names. Repetition helps the devotees in attaining that concentration which leads their minds to the deepest state of meditation. Historically we find there have been many great personalities who reached the higher mystical experiences through this practice. It has been, recorded that it is the easiest and the most suitable process of realizing the truth in this age. Sri Ramakrishna the great modern Hindu leader, emphasized its value. Sir John Woodruff has translated some of the Hindu scriptures dealing with this subject.

Others, again, are of the opinion that one should combine  work with worship or with devotional practices and meditation. Their view is that the combination of these two methods, work and devotion (Karma Yoga and Bhakti Yoga), will lead one to the highest realization; and until this goal is reached, one must continue with the combined method. But Sri Krishna and Swami Vivekananda are clear that one can attain the goal of religion by following anyone of these methods.

One should note in connection with Karma Yoga that it has no place for restless activity. A Karma Yogi must always be alert that the mind does not get mixed up with ambition and so-called “self-expression.” Like the Jnana Yogi he should always ry to eliminate self-consciousness or the go. It is quite conceivable that in the midst of activities, however well meaning he may be in the beginning, the ego of a person is still pupated by the objective success of the work. However, success in Karma Yoga does, not mean external achievement but rather inner purification and conquest of the lower self. Let there be no confusion about the process of Karma Yoga and achievements by that method; otherwise, it will defeat itself by merely producing external and objective results in the form of success in creating bigger and better institutions, cities, etc. If Karma Yogis are not careful of the inner workings of the mind in the form of ambition for external achievement, their activities will no longer remain as true Karma Yoga. So the path of action may not necessarily lead to success in the objective sense but rather in the subjective sense; that is to say, it should lead a person to a peaceful state of mind, as it emphasizes conquest of desire for the fruit of action. Therefore, the great spiritual leaders often advise beginners on this path to practice meditation, worship, or any other auxiliary method to keep the ideal bright and the mind free from desire for ambition and “self-expression.” It is, however, possible for a few persons to follow Karma Yoga strictly without any auxiliary method.

It is a fact that this is predominantly an age of action; and Swami Vivekananda, great teacher of all the systems of yoga, convincingly tells us that most of the people will have to follow the path of action. In fact, the right form of action, or Karma Yoga, is applicable to all spiritual aspirants, and they do follow certain phases of Karma Yoga in the course of their spiritual evolution. It goes without saying that the path of action is not just a mere step to higher practices whereby one is purified, made unselfish  and otherwise fit for them; but it is a definite path in itself, leading one to the same goal that is reached by any of the other yogas-Jnana, Bhakti, or Raja.

The meditative people have to take up certain forms of concentration and meditation, to reach superconscious experience. This is Raja Yoga or the psychological method. The word Raja means “royal.  The practice of concentration and meditation is needed more or less in every path in different ways, so it is regarded as a “royal” path. This psychological method helps one to integrate the mind; all mental states are unified. Moreover, a scientific man can follow it step by step and train his mind even if he cannot, for the time being, accept the idea of God. Many Buddhists and Hindus have started with this psychological yoga and have reached the goal. In fact, when the mind is well regulated, controlled, and unified, the truth reveals itself.

Many Western and Eastern readers are often interested in Hatha Yoga. People frequently confuse it with Raja Yoga as there are some common physical steps in both. It will be interesting to note here that Hindu psychologists of the Raja Yoga type have found in the course of their experiences that physical health is important for mental development, as the mind of the average person functions through the nervous system. When the body is sick or weak, the nervous system is  consequently affected. The mind becomes restless or uncontrollable, and it also often becomes dull, inert, and sleepy. These states are obstacles to higher mental development. In order to practice the last four steps-pratyahara (withdrawal of the mind), dharana (concentration), dhyana (meditation),. and samadhi (superconscious)-a person must have control over the physical functions. of the body. He must.also have strong nerves; otherwise he cannot have effective concentration or meditation, and it becomes impossible for him to attain the last step of Raja Yoga. Many of the yogis in the earlier days of their practice of Raja Yoga observe certain Hatha Yoga practices, which are mostly physical, in order to strengthen the physical constitution. That is one of the reasons Raja Yoga is sometimes regarded as a psychophysical -process of the attainment of truth.

Unfortunately, it was found that many persons who practiced Hatha Yoga developed some of the extrasensory perceptions and occult or psychic powers, and they forgot the primary objective of yoga practices. These powers are regarded as obstacles . Some thinkers subdivide the four main divisions of yoga,- ]nana, Bhakti, Karma, and Raja. For instance, Mantra Yoga and such other subdivisions actually form parts of one of the main divisions.

It is difficult for beginners to get settled in higher spiritual practices. The mind remains restless; and_ if a person continues one form of practice, it becomes monotonous. So it is most advisable that the different methods-, devotion, work, and meditation-be combined until a genuine interest in are created. Otherwise there is great danger of reaction and dryness in the spiritual practices.

Many persons have given up their exercises and ruined their progress because they were not wisely directed. Again, many devotees, in their early enthusiasm, try to imitate great saints and spiritually well-established persons. They try to intensify meditation or worship and ignore other aspects of life and activity, even in the beginning of religious life. They need guidance so that they will not have bad reactions, dryness, and lack of interest. So it is always desirable to have a little variation in the early stages of spiritual practices. A good thought has been expressed by a devotee: “We all have our destination, although different paths we choose to the storehouse of Infinite Knowledge for the Self to explore.”

Swami Vivekananda was the advocate of developing and harmonizing these four methods or yogas in the individual. He felt that, if anyone could combine two or three methods, he would have more harmonious development than. There would not be any possibility of narrowness or one-sidedness, and the character would be well rounded and fully developed. It is, however, difficult for one to perfect one’s self in all of them simultaneously. There are, of course, persons who can do it, but usually one feels quite successful if he can reach the goal by following one system thoroughly.

It goes without saying that one must perfect one’s self in what- ever method is adopted in order to attain the desired realization. However, partial practice or combination of some of the methods is extremely elevating and desirable, especially for beginners. One should be careful not to lose interest in God by being injudicious in practices. One should also be careful in making the right choice of the methods according to one’s own temperament.

There is so much difference between one man and another in their inclinations and their temperaments that no one method can be assigned to all for their sadhana or spiritual advancement. Different temperaments require different Sadhana and different ways of worship.

 

 

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D.

Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed.

Former Principal, A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

It is well-known that with the rise of Buddhism in India there dawned the golden age of India’s culture and civilisation. There was progress in all aspects of Indian civilisation under the impact of Buddhism. With the rise of Buddhism in India, there arose many centres of learning which did not exist before. Buddhist monks could opt for a life of meditation in the forests, or a life of teaching, preaching, propagating the Dharma as a result of the activities of the teaching monks, seats of learning arose. These seats of monastic learning (Pirivenas) gradually developed and some of them became full-fledged universities.

In the ancient period Buddhist Monasteries and in the later period Buddhist Universities played major role in developing Buddhist Education. In the institutions teachers were highly qualified and sincere to their duties. The main aim of Buddhist Education is to make a free man, an intelligent man, a wise, moral, talented, non-violent and secular man. Buddhist Education makes man judicious, humanist, logical and free from superstitions

The main centre of Buddhist Education was sangharama (Monastery / Vihara, Temple) where monks and samanaras reside sangharamas were open to all. Here students from different caste, creed, colour and religion got free admission. Buddhism was a strong protest against orthodox Vedic (Hindu) religion and also Education System. Buddhism established democracy, universalism and monastic life. There was no racial discrimination and nobody was deprived of his rights. Buddhist Monasteries became the Centre of Education.

Takshshila

Taxila was very famous, this  can be deduced from the fact that it is mentioned in several languages: in Sanskrit, the city was called Takshaçila, which may be interpreted as “prince of the serpent tribe”; in Pâli it was known as Takkasilâ; the Greeks knew the town as Taxila (Ταξίλα), which the Romans rendered as Taxilla; the Chinese called it Chu Ch’a-shi-lo. The ruins are some 30 kilometers northwest of modern Islamabad in Pakistan.

Taxila is a vast complex of ruins, some 30 km north-west of modern Islamabad, which includes a Mesolithic cave (Khanpur cave), four settlement sites (Saraidala, Bhir, Sirkap and Sirsukh), a number of Buddhist monasteries of various periods and above Giri, Muslim mosques and madrasas of the medieval period. The Bhir mound is the earliest historic city of Taxila and was probably founded in the 6th century BC by the Achaemenids, according to legend by a son of the brother of the legendary hero Rama. The first town was situated on a hill that commanded the river Tamra Nala, a tributary of the Indus. It was an important cultural centre and it is said that the Mahabharata was first recited at Taxila. Stone walls, house foundations and winding streets represent the earliest forms of urbanization on the subcontinent.

Taxila is known from references in Indian and Greco-Roman literary sources and from the accounts of two Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Faxian and Xuanzang. Literally meaning “City of Cut Stone” or “Rock of Taksha,” Takshashila (rendered by Greek writers as Taxila) was founded, according to the Indian epicRamayana, by Bharata, younger brother of Rama, an incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu. The city was named for Bharata’s son Taksha, its first ruler. The great Indian epic Mahabharata was, according to tradition, first recited at Taxila at the great snake sacrifice of King Janamejaya, one of the heroes of the story. Buddhist literature, especially the Jatakas, mentions it as the capital of the kingdom of Gandharaand as a great centre of learning. Gandhara is also mentioned as a satrapy, or province, in the inscriptions of the Achaemenian (Persian) king Darius I in the 5th century BCE. Taxila, as the capital of Gandhara, was evidently under Achaemenian rule for more than a century. When Alexander the Greatinvaded India in 326 BCE, Ambhi (Omphis), the ruler of Taxila, surrendered the city and placed his resources at Alexander’s disposal. Greek historians accompanying the Macedonian conqueror described Taxila as “wealthy, prosperous, and well governed.”

Within a decade after Alexander’s death, Taxila was absorbed into the Mauryan empire founded byChandragupta, under whom it became a provincial capital. However, this was only an interlude in the history of Taxila’s subjection to conquerors from the west. After three generations of Mauryan rule, the city was annexed by the Indo-Greek kingdom of Bactria. It remained under the Indo-Greeks until the early 1st century BCE. They were followed by the Shakas, or Scythians, from Central Asia, and by the Parthians, whose rule lasted until the latter half of the 1st century CE.

According to early Christian legend, Taxila was visited by the apostle Thomas during the Parthian period. Another distinguished visitor was the neo-Pythagorean sage Apollonius of Tyana (1st century CE), whose biographer Philostratus described Taxila as a fortified city that was laid out on a symmetrical plan and compared it in size to Nineveh (ancient city of the Assyrian empire).

Taxila was taken from the Parthians by the Kushans under Kujula Kadphises. The great Kushan ruler Kanishka founded Sirsukh, the third city on the site. (The second, Sirkap, dates from the Indo-Greek period.) In the 4th century CE the Sāsānian king Shāpūr II (309–379) seems to have conquered Taxila, as evidenced by the numerous Sāsānian copper coins found there. There is little information about the Sāsānian occupation, but, when Faxian visited the city at about the beginning of the 5th century CE, he found it a flourishing centre of Buddhist sanctuaries and monasteries. Shortly thereafter it was sacked by the Huns; Taxila never recovered from this calamity. Xuanzang, visiting the site in the 7th century CE, found the city ruined and desolate, and subsequent records do not mention it.

Due to geographical situation and prosperity, Takshshila had to suffer the disasters of foreign invasions. It saw many ups and downs. As a result of these political changes the educational atmosphere of the “Gurukul‘ was also influenced, resulting in changes in the system. This place was conquered by Persians in the 6^th century B.C., in 2nd century B.C. by Greeks, in 1stcentury B.C. by ‘Sakas‘, in 1stcentury A.D. by Kushans and in 5thcentury A.D. by Huns. The ruins of the city prove that it was destroyed and rebuilt many a times.

“The Jatakas contain 105 references to Takshasila. “The fame of Takshasila as a seat of learning was, of course, due to that of its teachers. They are always spoken of as being ‘world-renowned,’ being authorities, specialists and experts in the subjects they professed. It was the presence of scholars of such acknowledged excellence and widespread reputation that caused a steady movement of qualified students from all classes and ranks of society towards Takshasila from different and distant parts of the Indian continent, making it the intellectual capital of India of those days. Thus various centers of learning in the different parts of the country became affiliated, as it were, to the educational center or to the central University of Takshasila, which exercised a kind of intellectual suzerainty over the world of letters in India.

Takshshila was also not an organized university. It may be called an educational centre of different special subjects where special and higher studies were carried on .Students were admitted according to the decision of the teacher. The students were taught the subjects of their own choice. They completed their education according to their sweet will. There was no examination system prevalent. No degree or diploma was awarded to the students who completed their education. Only higher studies were conducted in Takshshila and so the students of more than sixteen years of age were admitted in the University. Perhaps the fees were also realized in the beginning. This fee was about 1,000 coins current at that time. Those students, who were not able to pay fees, had to pay it in the form of manual labour. Sometimes, the students were allowed to pay the fees even after finishing their education. Those students, who were unable to pay fees in any form, were educated out of charity. Some meritorious students without proper resources were awarded the government scholarships. In Takshshila poor and the rich all kinds of students were given opportunity to study.

Normally the students in Takshshila resided with their teachers in boarding houses, but some lived outside too. As Takshshila was the centre of higher education so its education system may be divided into two categories – Literary or General and Scientific or Industrial education. In Literary or Arts departments, all the religious literatures were included. Besides Atharva Veda other three Vedas, Rig Veda, Yajur Veda and Sam Veda were the foundation-stone of the education. Learning of Vedas, Vyakaran, Philosophy, Literature, Jyotish etc., the Brahmanical literature, the Buddhist literature were also taught in this centre. The Jatakas constantly refer to students coming to Takkasila to complete their education in the three Vedas and the eighteen Sippas or Arts. Sometimes the students are referred to as selecting the study of the Vedas alone or the Arts alone. The Boddisatta (Buddha) is frequently referred to as having learned the three Vedas by heart. Takshila was famous for military training, wrestling, archery and mountain- climbing.

In regard to Scientific or Industrial education,  handicrafts and technical subjects like Greek architecture and arts were taught. The 18 arts were  – Ayurveda, surgery, archery, warfare, Jyotish, prophesy, book-keeping, trade and commerce, agriculture, chariot-driving, mesmerism, snake-charming, hidden treasure investigation, music, dancing and painting. Practical experiments were also conducted in scientific and industrial education. The students had to prove their practical ability and efficiency. Some evidences are found to prove that some of the students, as university scholars (graduates) gave public demonstration of their skill going from one place to the other. : The Jatakas mention of subjects under scientific and technical education. Medicine included a first hand study of the plants to find out the medicinal ones. Takkasila was also famous for some of its special schools. One of such schools was the Medical Schools which must have been the best of its kind in India. It was also noted for its School of Law which attracted student from distant Ujjeni. Its Military School were not less famous, which offered training in Archery. Thus the teachers of Takkasila were as famous for their knowledge of the arts of peace as for that of war. Much attention was paid to the development of social and cultural activities in all possible ways. Dancing and dramatic groups, singers and musicians and other artists were given encouragement and offered employment. During the Sangam epoch in South India, the three principal arts, Music, Dance and Drama were practiced intensively and extensively throughout the country, and the epic of Silappadikaram contains many references to the practice of these arts.

Kashi

The modern name of the city in Varanasi. Formerly it was called Banaras. Kashi, Banaras and Varanasi are the names of the same city situated on the banks of Ganga. . The king of Kashi named Ajatasatru was renowned for his learning of Upanishads. This was the reason why many kings had sent their princes to Kashi for higher learning. Besides this, evidence shows that many Acharyas of Kashi were the scholars of Takshshila. Science, Arts and Crafts. Next, to Takkasila ranks Benares as a seat of learning. It was, however, largely the creation of the ex-students of Takkasila who set up as teachers at Benares, and carried thither the culture of that cosmopolitan educational center which was molding the intellectual life of the whole of India. There were again certain subjects in the teaching of which Benares seems to have specialized

In the 7thcentury B.C. Kashi became the most famous centre of learning in Northern India. The students began to flock here too, for higher studies of various branches of knowledge like Takshshila. Here too all the 18 crafts were taught. This was besides the Vedic studies. Together with learning, Kashi became the centre of Hindu religion also.. Gradually, in the reign of Asoka, Sarnath/Kashi  became the famous seat of Buddhism. It went on prospering till the 7thcentury A.D.

Nalanda

In the state of Bihar in India at a distance of 7 miles in the  north of Rajgarh and in south-east of Patna in India, at a distance of 43 miles, is situated Nalanda, where ruins are still displaying its ancient glory.

Nalanda represents an era, that saw India leading in imparting knowledge, to the world – the era when India was a coveted place for studies. The University flourished during the 5th and 12th century. Some historical studies suggest that the University of Nalanda was established during the reign of a king called Śakrāditya, of the Gupta Dynasty.[8]Both Xuanzang and Prajñavarman cite him as the founder, as does a seal discovered at the site.

Founded in the 5th Century A.D., Nalanda is known as the ancient seat of learning. 2,000 Teachers and 10,000 Students from all over the Buddhist world lived and studied at Nalanda, the first Residential International University of the World.

Although Nalanda is one of the places distinguished as having been blessed by the presence of the Buddha, it later became particularly renowned as the site of the great monastic university of the same name , which was to become the crown jewel of the development of Buddhism in India. The name may derive from one of Shakyamuni’s former births , when hewas a king whose capital was here.Nalanda was one of his epithets meaning “insatiable in giving.”

This place saw the rise and fall of many empires and emperors who contributed in the development of Nalanda University. Many monasteries and temples were built by them. Kingarshwardhana gifted a 25m high copper statue of Buddha and Kumargupta endowed a college of fine arts ere. Nagarjuna- a Mahayana philosopher, Dinnaga- founder of the school of Logic and Dharmpala- the Brahmin scholar, taught here.

The famous Chinese traveller and scholar,Hieun-Tsang stayed here and has given a detailed description of the situations prevailing at that time. Careful excavation of the place has revealed many stupas, monasteries,hostels,stair cases,meditation halls, lecture halls and many other structures which speak of the splendour and grandeur this place enjoyed,when the place was a centre of serious study. Regarding the historicity of Nalanda, we read in Jaina texts that Mahavira Vardhamana spent as many as fourteen rainy seasons in Nalanda.

Pali Buddhist Literature , too, has ample references to Nalanda, which used to be visited by Lord Buddha. During the days of Mahavira and Buddha,Nalanda was apparently a very prosperous temple city, a great place of pilgrimage and the site of a celebrated university. It is said that King Asoka gave offerings to the Chaitya of Sariputra at Nalanda and erected a temple there.Taranath mentions this and also that Nagarjuna, the famous Mahayana philosopher of the second century A.D.,studied at Nalanda.Nagarjuna later became the high-priest there.

The Gupta kings patronised these monasteries, built in old Kushan architectural style, in a row of cells around a courtyard.Ashoka and Harshavardhana were some of its most celebrated patrons who built temples and monasteries here. Recent excavations have unearthed elaborate structures here. Hiuen Tsang had left ecstatic accounts of both the ambiance and architectureof this unique university of ancient times.

Modern historians have tentatively dated the founding of a monastery at Nalanda as being in the fifth century.However, this may not be accurate. For example,the standard biographiesof the teacher Nagarjuna, believed by most historians to have been born around 150 AD, are quite specific about his having received ordination at Nalanda monastery when he was seven years old. Further, histeacherRahulabhadra is said to have lived there for some time before that. We may infer that there were a monastery or monasteries at Nalanda long before the foundation of the later Great Mahavihara.

At the time Hsuan Chwang stayed at Nalanda and studied with the abbot Shilabhadra, it was already a flourishing centre of learning. In many ways it seems to have been like a modern university.There was a rigorous oral entry examination conducted by erudite gatekeepers,and many students were turned away.To study or to have studied at Nalanda was a matter of great prestige. However, no degree was granted nor was a specific period of study required. The monks’ time, measured by a water clock, was divided between study and religious rites and practice.There were schools of study in which students received explanations by discourse, and there were also schools of debate, where the mediocre were often humbled, and the conspicuously talented distinguished. Accordingly, the elected abbot was generally the most learned man of the time.

The library of Nalanda, known as Dharma Gunj (Mountain of Truth) or Dharmagañja (Treasury of Truth), was the most renowned repository of Buddhist knowledge in the world at the time. Its collection was said to comprise hundreds of thousands of volumes, so extensive that it burned for approximately more than 6 months when set aflame by Turkish invaders. The library had three main buildings as high as nine stories tall, Ratnasagara (Sea of Jewels), Ratnodadhi (Ocean of Jewels), and Ratnarañjaka(Delighter of Jewels).The libraries were vast and widely renowned, although there is a legend of a malicious fire in which many of the texts were destroyed and irrevocably lost.

During the Gupta age,the practice and study of the mahayana, especially the madhyamaka, flourished. However, from 750 AD, in the Pala age, there was an increase in the study and propagation of the tantric teachings.This is evidenced by the famous pandit Abhayakaragupta, a renowned tantric practitioner who was simultaneously abbot of the Mahabodhi, Nalanda and Vikramashila monasteries. Also Naropa, later so important to the tantric lineages of the Tibetan traditions, was abbot of Nalanda in the years 1049-57.

Evidence in literature suggests that in 1193, the Nalanda University was sacked by Bakhtiyar Khilji, a Turk. The Persian historian Minhaj-i-Siraj, in his chronicle the Tabaqat-I-Nasiri, reported that thousands of monks were burned alive and thousands beheaded as Khilji tried his best to uproot Buddhism. The burning of the library continued for several months and “smoke from the burning manuscripts hung for days like a dark pall over the low hills.”

The last throne-holder of Nalanda, Shakyashribhadra, fled to Tibet in 1204 at the invitation of the Tibetan translator Tropu Lotsawa (Khro-phu Lo-tsa-ba Byams-pa dpal). In Tibet, he started an ordination lineage of the Mulasarvastivada lineage to complement the two existing ones.

When the Tibetan translator Chag Lotsawa (Chag Lo-tsa-ba, 1197–1264) visited the site in 1235, he found it damaged and looted, with a 90-year-old teacher, Rahula Shribhadra, instructing a class of about 70 students.[16][17] During Chag Lotsawa’s time there an incursion by Turkic soldiers caused the remaining students to flee. Despite all this, “remnants of the debilitated Buddhist community continued to struggle on under scarce resources until c. 1400 when Chagalaraja was reportedly the last king to have patronized Nalanda.”

D.C. Ahir considers the destruction of the temples, monasteries, centres of learning at Nalanda and northern India to be responsible for the demise of ancient Indian scientific thought in mathematics, astronomy, alchemy, and anatomy.

Much of the tradition of Nalanda had been carried into Tibet by the time of the Muslim invasions of the twelfth century. While the monasteries of Odantapuri and Vikramashila were then destroyed, the buildings at Nalanda do not seem to have suffered extensive damage at that time, although most of the monks fled before the desecrating armies. In 1235 the Tibetan pilgrim Chag Lotsawa found a 90 year old teacher, Rahula Shribhadra, with a class of seventy students. Rahula Shribhadra managed to survive through the support of a local brahmin and did not leave until he had completed educating his last Tibetan student.

In Nalanda the Vihara was established by Emperor Asoka. He had built a ―Sangharam‖ (residents of Buddhist nuns) but as a university it did not flourish before the 3rdcentury A.D. Nagarjuna came to study here about 300 or 330 A.D. from far south. But as the period of Nagarjuna and Ayurveda could not decided on reliable evidences, therefore the history of Nalanda as a centre of learning begins from 450 A.D.Fahian visited the place in 410 A.D. but Dr. Mukerji says that he had seen some other village named Nal, which in ‗Sudarsan Jatak‘ is named as Nalak or Nal village, and thus he could not visit the actual centre of Nalanda.

Nalanda was one of the world’s first residential universities, i.e., it had dormitories for students. It is also one of the most famous universities. In its heyday, it accommodated over 10,000 students and 2,000 teachers. The university was considered an architectural masterpiece, and was marked by a lofty wall and one gate. Nalanda had eight separate compounds and ten temples, along with many other meditation halls and classrooms. On the grounds were lakes and parks. The library was located in a nine storied building where meticulous copies of texts were produced. The subjects taught at Nalanda University covered every field of learning, and it attracted pupils and scholars from Korea, Japan, China, Tibet, Indonesia, Persia and Turkey. During the period of Harsha, the monastery is reported to have owned 200 villages given as grants.

The Tang Dynasty Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang left detailed accounts of the university in the 7th century. He described how the regularly laid-out towers, forest of pavilions, harmikas and temples seemed to “soar above the mists in the sky” so that from their cells the monks “might witness the birth of the winds and clouds.” The pilgrim states: “An azure pool winds around the monasteries, adorned with the full-blown cups of the blue lotus; the dazzling red flowers of the lovely kanaka hang here and there, and outside groves of mango trees offer the inhabitants their dense and protective shade.

The Tibetan tradition holds that there were “four doxographies” (Tibetan: grub-mtha’) which were taught at Nālandā, and :  Courses were drawn from every field of learning, Buddhist and Hindu, sacred and secular, foreign and native. Students studied science, astronomy, medicine, and logic as diligently as they applied themselves to metaphysics, philosophy, Samkhya, Yoga-shastra, the Veda, and the scriptures of Buddhism. They studied foreign philosophy likewise.

In the 7th century, Xuanzang records the number of teachers at Nālandā as being around 1510^] Of these, approximately 1000 were able to explain 20 collections of sūtras and śāstras, 500 were able to explain 30 collections, and only 10 teachers were able to explain 50 collections. Xuanzang was among the few who were able to explain 50 collections or more. At this time, only the abbot Śīlabhadra had studied all the major collections of sūtras and śāstras at Nālandā.

Yijing wrote that matters of discussion and administration at Nālandā would require assembly and consensus on decisions by all those at the assembly, as well as resident monks

Valabhi

Valabhi, city of ancient India that was the capital of the Maitraka dynasty in the 5th–8th centuries ce. It was situated on an inlet of the Gulf of Khambhat (Cambay), northwest of the port of Bhavnagar, in Saurastra (later Gujarat), western India. The city is thought to have been established about 470 ce by the founder of the dynasty, Senapati Bhatarka, during the period when the Gupta empire was weakened. It continued as capital until about 780, when it suddenly and unaccountably disappeared from history. It apparently survived the Arab invasions of Saurastra about 725–735.

Valabhi was a celebrated centre of learning, with numerous Buddhist monasteries. It was visited by the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang in the middle of the 7th century and by Yijing at the century’s close. The latter described it as equaling the fame of the Buddhist monastic centre Nalanda, in Bihar. According to a Jaina tradition, the second Jaina council was held in Valabhi in the 5th or 6th century ce; at this council the Jaina scriptures assumed their present form.

Valabhi situated on the eastern side of Kathiawar. This centre also flourished about the same period when Nalanda was in its glory. Valabhi was a parallel centre of the Hinayana School of Buddhism as Nalanda was the centre of Mahayana School. It was a capital of an important kingdom and side by side a part of an international importance. In the middle of 7^th century, Sthirmati and Gunmati, the eminent scholars of Buddhism, were in this centre. This centre was famous not only as a centre of Buddhist culture and learning but also for the religious tolerance and mental freedom. The graduates of Valabhi were appointed in high government services.

Vallabhi University achieved as much fame as Nalanda. The Maitraka kings who ruled Western India constructed a monastery at Vallabhitheir capital.. The Maitraka kings spent lavishly to maintain their university. They gave every encouragement and assistance to Buddhist studies at this institution. In the 7th century Vallabhi was as prosperous and famous as Nalanda. Hieum Tsang visited Vallabhi, and reported in his “Ta-Tang-Si-Yu-Ki” as follows:

The population of Vallabhi is very large. The country is rich and prosperous. There are over a hundred millionaire families there. Imported luxury goods are seen in this city. There are about 100 monasteries with about 6,000 Buddhist monks. Most of them belong to the Sammitiya Sect. There are also many Hindu temples and a large Hindu population in this past of the country. The Buddha had visited this land during his ministry. There are stupas erected by King Asoka to mark the spots hallowed by the Buddha visit.”

Tsing records that foreign students were found at Vallabhi. They come from many lands far and near from these facts we know that like Nalanda-Vallabhi was internationally recognised. There was a large library. This was maintained by a fund established by the King. The course of studies included Comparative Religion. The Six systems of Hindu Philosophy and various other schools of Buddhism, Politics, Law, Agriculture, Economics also formed a part of the curriculum.

Tsing records that the graduates of Vallabhi, displayed their skill in the presence of the royalty, nobles, and other eminent people.

Thus it would be seen that as long as Buddhism was a power to reckon with in India, it rendered great service in the field of learning and culture. This is how it should be in a religion that teaches that ignorance is the worst enemy of Man and the cause of  his sufferings while knowledge (Pragnya) is his highest asset. Pragnya wins all that is good in this world, and finally brings him the highest happiness, mundane as well as supra-mundane.

When the Portuguese conquered the Kotte Kingdom there were flourishing Buddhist Seminaries (Pirivenas) at Totagamauwa, Keragala, and Wattala. They were all raised to the ground “leaving not one stone upon another” Then followed an age of ignorance, decay and corruption for some 200 years. Finally during the reign of King Kirti Sri Rajasinha, Ven. Weliwita Saranankara started his Buddhist revival opening his Seminary at Niyamakanda, Udunnwara

Vickramasila

This place was situated in Magadha on the banks of the Gangas not very far away Nalanda. It is said to have included a hundred and seven temples and six colleges. It was founded by king Dhammapal at the close of the eight century and continued until it was destroyed about the same time as Nalanda.

A learned and pious sage was always appointed as head of the monastery. The subjects taught were similar to those taught at Nalanda, including grammar, metaphysics and logic and ritualistic books.

Pundits who where eminent in learning were rewarded by having their images painted on walls of the university, and the title of PANDIT was conferred on distinguished scholars by king himself. Six of the most learned of the sages of this foundation were appointed to guard the gates, gatekeepers to examine the fitness of applicants seeking admission to the university.

According to this Vickramasila was situated at Antichak Village, Kahalagon, Bagalpur District Vickramasila was said to be a sister institution of Nalanda and was said to have been founded by a monk called Kamapala, under the patronage of King Dharmapala. (AC 770-810). The King granted land-endowments for its upkeep later King Yasapala also patronised the institutions by liberal land endowments. Under the Pala Kings Vickramasila rose to 9 positions when it rivalled Nalanda and bade well to outshine it. In the centre of the university was the main lecture-hall. It was called Vidyagriha. There were six entrances to this building and near each entrance was a monastery for resident monks about 150 teachers were accommodated in each monastery. Like Nalanda Vickramasila was also surrounded by a high-wall. There were six Dvara Panditas i.e Professors who examined candidates seeking admission. Here too high standards were maintained. 108 Professors were engaged in teaching and administrative duties. The curriculum of studies was similar to that of Nalanda. Here preference was given to the Tantric form of Buddhism.

Dipankara Sri Gnana who is also known as Atisha (AC 960-1055) was the more-famous of the scholars of Vickramasila. His fame spread far and wide as the propagator of Buddhism in Tibet Tibetans hold his name in the highest veneration. Vickramasila was managed by a staff of Professors. They constituted the Board of Education, Board of Administration, Board of Discipline and the Board in charge of entrance examinations. Inaugurated in about 800 A.C. it graced the land until it was demolished by the Muslim invaders.

Kanchi

Kanchipuram was known in early Tamil literature as Kachi or Kachipedu but was later Sanskritized to Kanchi or Kanchipuram. According to legend, the name Kanchi is derived from Ka referring to the Hindu god Brahma and anchi, referring to his worship of Hindu god Vishnu at this place. The earliest inscription from the Maurya period (325–185 BCE) denote the city as Kanchipuram, where King Visnugopa was defeated by Samudragupta Maurya (320–298 BCE). Patanjali (150 BCE or 2nd century BCE) refers to the city in his Mahabhasya as Kanchipuraka. The city was referred to by various Tamil names like Kanchi, Kanchipedu and Sanskrit names like Kanchipuram. The Pallava inscriptions from (250–355) and the inscriptions of the Chalukya dynasty refers the city as Kanchipura. Jaina Kanchi refers to the area around Tiruparutti Kundram.

Kanchipuram is traditionally a centre of religious education for the Hindu, Jainism and Buddhism faiths. The Buddhist monasteries acted as nucleus of the Buddhist educational system. With the gradual resurrection of Hinduism during the reign of Mahendra Varman I, the Hindu educational system gained prominence with Sanskrit emerging as the official language.[

Buddhism is believed to have flourished in Kanchipuram between the 1st and 5th centuries.[98] Some notable Buddhists associated with Kanchipuram are Āryadeva(2nd–3rd centuries) – a successor of Nāgārjuna of Nalanda University, Dignaga and the Pali commentators Buddhaghosa and Dhammapala. According to a popular tradition, Bodhidharma, a 5th/6th-century Buddhist monk and founder of Shaolin Kung Fu was the third son of a Pallava king from Kanchipuram. However, other traditions ascribe his origins to other places in Asia.]Buddhists institutions from Kanchipuram were instrumental in spreading Theravada Buddhism to the Mon people of Myanmar and Thailand who in return spread the religion to the incoming Burmese and Thai people.

It is thought that Jainism was introduced into Kanchipuram by Kunda Kundacharya (1st century).[99] Jainism spread to the city by Akalanka (3rd century). Kalbhras, the rulers of Kanchipuram before the Pallavas, followed Jainism which gained popularity from royal patronage.[99] The Pallava kings, Simhavishnu, Mahendra Varman and Simhavarman (550–560) followed Jainism,. The two sects of Hinduism, Saivism andVaishnavism were revived under the influence of Adi Sankara and Ramanuja respectively.

(2ndcentury B.C. to 13thcentury).Kanchi University was famous in south India, and its main activity was to spread Buddhist and Jainism in the southern parts of India. The commercial community was of a great help for spreading Buddhism and Jainism. Among the subjects taught in the university engineering, sculpture and architecture  were prominent subjects. The proof of this could be found in the huge splendid temple carved in big stones.

Odantapuri

Odantapuri was considered the second oldest of India�s universities. This was situated in Maghada, about 6 miles away from Nalanda. Odantapuri University was established by Dharmapala of Pala dynasty during late 8th century in Magadha (which is in modern day Bihar) and flourished for 400 years till 12th century.  Acharya Sri Ganga of Vickramasila had been a student here. Later he joined Odantapuri King Gopala (660-705) was the patron who helped to found this university.  According t.  The famous Acharya Sri Ganga who was a professor at the Vikramashila University was a graduate of this Odantapuri University o the ancient Tibetan records there were about 12,000 students studying at this University..

Our knowledge of this seat of learning is obscure, and we are not in a position to give more details. This too perished at the hands of the Muslim invaders. It is said they mistook the universities with their high walls for fortresses. They thought the Buddhist monks were “Shaven headed Brahmins” who were idolaters.

Somapura

Somapura was situated in East Pakistan. King Devapala (AC 810-850) is said to have erected the Dharmapala-Vihara at Somapura. The ruins of these buildings cover an area of about 1 square mile. There was a large gate and the buildings were surrounded by a high-wall. There were about 177 cells for monks in additions to the shrines and image houses. A common refectory and a kitchen are among the ruins, Remains of three -strayed buildings are to be seen. This university flourished for about 750 years before it was abandoned after the Muslim invasion.

Somapura Mahavihara  was  established by Dharmapala of Pala dynasty during late 8th century in Bengal and flourished for 400 years till 12th century.  The University spread over 27 acres of land of which the main complex was 21 acres was one of the largest of its kind. It was a major center of learning for Bauddha Dharma (Buddhism), Jina Dharma (Jainism) and Sanatana Dharma (Hinduism). Even today one can find ornamental terracotta on its outer walls depicting the influence of these three traditions

it seems from the evidence that the different seats of Buddhist learning that functioned in eastern India under the Pāla were regarded together as forming a network, an interlinked group of institutions,” and it was common for great scholars to move easily from position to position among them.

The excavation at Paharpur, and the finding of seals bearing the inscription Shri-Somapure-Shri-Dharmapaladeva-Mahavihariyarya-bhiksu-sangghasya, has identified the Somapura Mahavihara as built by the second Pala king Dharmapala (circa 781-821) of Pāla Dynasty. Some clay seals from the ruins bear the inscription Shri-Somapure-Shri-Dharmapaladeva-Mahavihariyarya-bhiksu-sangghasya. Tibetan sources, including Tibetan translations of Dharmakayavidhi and Madhyamaka Ratnapradipa, Taranatha’s history and Pag-Sam-Jon-Zang, mention that Dharmapala’s successor Devapala (circa 810—850) built it after his conquest of Varendra. The Paharpur pillar inscription bears the mention of 5th regnal year of Devapala’s successor Mahendrapala (circa 850—854) along with the name of Bhiksu Ajayagarbha. Taranatha’s Pag Sam Jon Zang records that the monastery was repaired and renovated during the reign of Mahipala (circa 995—1043 AD).

The Nalanda inscription of Vipulashrimitra records that the monastery was destroyed by fire, which also killed Vipulashrimitra’s ancestor Karunashrimitra, during a conquest by the Vanga army in the 11th century, assumed to be an army of the Varman rulers. About a century later Vipulashrimitra renovated the vihara and added a temple of Tara. The restoration work was alluded to as jagatang netraika vishrama bhuh (a singular feast to the eyes of the world).

Atisha Dipankar Srijnan stayed here for many years and translated the Madhyamaka Ratnapradipa into Tibetan. Over time Atish’s spiritual preceptor, Ratnakara Shanti served as a sthavira of the vihara, Mahapanditacharya Bodhibhadra served as a resident monk, and several other scholars spent some part of their lives at this monastery including Kalamahapada, Viryendra and Karunashrimitra. Many Tibetan monks visited the Somapura between 9th and 12th centuries

During the rule of the Sena dynasty, known as Karnatadeshatagata Brahmaksatriya, in the second half of the 12th century the vihara started to decline for the last time. It was finally abandoned during the 13th century, when the area came under Muslim occupation.[3] One scholar writes, “The ruins of the temple and monasteries at Pāhāpur do not bear any evident marks of large-scale destruction. The downfall of the establishment, by desertion or destruction, must have been sometime in the midst of the widespread unrest and displacement of population consequent on the Muslim invasion.”

Jagaddala

Jagaddala Mahavihara (fl. late 11th c.- mid 12th c.) was a Buddhist Monastery and seat of learning in Varendra, a geographical unit in present north Bengal.

King Ramapala (1077-1129) is said to be the founder of this University. Jagaddala University was the largest construction works undertaken by the Pala Kings. This was a centre for the study and dissemination of Tantric Buddhism. It followed the methods, practices, and traditions of Nalanda. According to Tibetan works many books were translated to the Tibetan language at Jagaddala. The Buddhist teacher Sakya Sri Bhadra, seeing that Nalanda, Vickramsila, and Odantapuri were in ruins after the Muslim invasion, entered Jagaddala for his studies. It is said that his pupil Danaseela translated ten books to Tibetan Sakya Sri Bhadra was responsible for the propagation of Tatntric Buddhism in Tibet. He lived for seven years at Jagaddala. According to Tibetan sources, Jagaddala specialized in Vajrayana Buddhism. A large number of texts that would later appear in the Kanjur and Tengjur were known to have been composed or copied at Jagadala. It is likely that the earliest dated anthology of Sanskrit verse, the Subhāṣitaratnakoṣa, was compiled by Vidyākara at Jaggadala toward the end of the eleventh century or the beginning of the twelfth. Decline and end Śakyaśrībhadra, a Kashmiri scholar who was the last abbot of Nalanda Mahavihara and instrumental in transmitting Buddhism to Tibet, is said to have fled to Tibet in 1204 from Jagaddala when Muslim incursions seemed imminent. Historian Sukumar Dutt tentatively placed the final destruction of Jagadala to 1207.

It is a matter of  great pride that Buddhist Education crossed Indian Sub-continent and expanded upto China, Korea, Japan, Tibet, Mongolia, Srilanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodian, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, with the rise and development of Buddhism in those countries.

 

 

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D.

Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed.

Former Principal,A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

The Wardha Scheme of Education is also known as Nai Talim/Basic Education/Buniyadi Talim (Shiksha)/Basic Shiksha The scheme was the outcome of sound thinking of Ghandiji. who initiated and strengthened several constructive programmes for the economic, educational and social development of the people. He considered education as an effective instrument of national reconstruction.

ORIGIN OF THE SCHEME

At Round Table Conference in London (1931) he pointed out the ineffectiveness of the system of primary education in India and the alarming low percentage of literacy among Indian people. He held the policy of the British Government responsible for this painful situation in the field of mass education Ghandiji found the main defects of the system of education as, “I am fully convinced that present system of education is not only wasteful but positively harmful. They would pickup evil habits. English has created a permanent bar between the highly educated few and the uneducated many.” He further said, “let us now cry a halt and concentrate on educating the child properly through manual work not as a side activity but as a prime means of intellectual activity.”

In July 1937, Ghandiji wrote in the Harijan, “By education, I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in child and man – body, mind and spirit… Literacy itself is not education, I would, therefore, begin the child’s education by teaching it a useful handicraft and enabling it to produce from the moment it begins its training. Thus every school can be made self-supporting, the condition begin that the state takes over the manufacture of these schools.”

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The Government of India Act, 1935 came into force in 1937. According to the Act, Congress Ministries were formed in seven provinces in India. Prior to this Congress had been strongly pleading for free, compulsory and universal education. After having the power the Congress had to implement it in action.. Gandhiji was fully conversant with the deplorable condition of education in the land. For improving this condition he advocated a scheme of primary education based on Indian traditional culture through the medium of mother tongue. But this required a huge sum of money which meant fresh taxation.. To end this dilemma Gandhiji put forward the proposal that the plan of mass education need not be held up for want of funds. Free and compulsory primary education could be given to every child if the process of schooling could be made self supporting by imparting education through a useful and productive craft. Gandhiji expressed his views on education through a series of articles in ‘Harijan’ in June 31, 1937, which later on developed into the Wardha Scheme of Basic Education. The views of Gandhiji created controversies in the academic circles. Therefore it was desirable to get the scheme examined by experts and educationists. Finally, Gandhiji placed his Basic Education System to the nation in the Wardha Conference in 1937.

WARDHA EDUCATION CONFERENCE

For the purpose of discussing different aspects of the proposed new scheme of education, an All India Education Conference was held in Wardha on 22nd and 23rd October, 1937. The eminent educationists, congress leaders and workers alongwith the Education Ministers of the seven states had attended the conference. Gandhiji himself presided over it. After serious discussions the following four resolutions were passed.

1)     That in the opinion of this Conference, free and compulsory education be provided for seven years on a nation-wide scale;

2)     That the medium of instruction be the mother-tongue;

3)     That the conference endorses the proposal, made by Mahatma Gandhi, that the process of education throughout this period should centre around some productive form of manual work, and that all other abilities to be developed or training should be given, as far as possible, be integrally related to the central handicraft chosen with due regard to the environment of the child.

4)     That the conference expects that the system of education will be gradually able to cover the remuneration of the teachers.

Appointment of a Committee

The conference appointed a committee of distinguished educationists under the chairmanship of Dr. Zakir Hussain,  the Committee consisted of nine members.

Prof. K. G. Saiidain

Arya Nayakam,

Vinova Bhave,

Kaka Kalelkar,

J. C. Kumarappa,

Kishori Lal,

Prof. K. T. Shah etc.

The report of the committee published in March 1938, has come to be known as the Wardha Scheme of Education. It was approved by Mahatma Gandhi and was placed before the Indian National Congress at its Haripura Session held in March 1938. The Congress accepted the scheme.

The first report included the basic principles of the Wardha Scheme of education, its aims, teachers and their training, organisation of schools, administration, inspection and inclusion of craft centred education regarding handicrafts like spinning, weaving etc. The second report dealt with Agriculture, Metal work, Wood craft and other basic handicraft. An elaborate curriculum of all those subjects and ways and means to establish their correlation with other subjects was also suggested.

In course of time more conferences were held, more committees were formed on this important subject. As a result more new features were added to this aspect of education which later on took the final shape. The conference of 1945 at Sebagram characterized Basic Education as “education for life”. The conference considered it as a radical and important revolution in social and economic structure of the Indian society, i.e., creating a new way of life.” Since then Basic education came to be known as ‘Nai Talim’. A conference of education ministers and educational workers was called by B.G. Kher in 1946, that took some important resolutions which affected the quality of Basic Education in different provinces. Basic Education has finally emerged after a decade of experimentation and discussion

MEANING AND PHILOSOPHY OF BASIC EDUCATION

Gandhiji was a practical educational philosopher and an experimentalist to the core. His experiments with truth and education were the instrument for the realisation of his ideal in life. In several of his educational experiments he tried to translate his philosophy-into achieving the reality of the evolution and establishment of an ideal society. His educational system is the dynamic side of his entire philosophy. . For Gandhi mere literacy is not the end of education not even the beginning. It is only one of the means by which man and woman can be educated. Therefore, he attaches little value to literacy in his scheme of education

Significance of the word ‘Basic’

One. The word ‘Basic’ is derived from the word ‘Base’ which means the bottom or the foundation of a thing upon which the whole things rests or is made. It is basic because it is based on ancient Indian culture. It is basic because it lays down the minimum educational standards which every Indian child is entitled to receive without any distinction of caste and creed. It is basic because it is closely related to the basic needs and interests of the child. It is basic because it make use of native potentialities of the child. It is basic because it is intimately related to the basic occupations of the community. It is basic because it is for the common man of the country, who is the foundation and backbone of our national life. It is basic because it comes first in time, i.e., it is the primary period of one’s education.

As the word ‘Basic’ is derived from the word ‘base’ which means the bottom or the foundation of a thing upon which the whole thing rests or is made o stand Mahatma Gandhi wanted to make the foundation of the educational edifice strong. It is with this objective that he put forward this scheme. This scheme of education is based on the national culture and civilisation of India. It aims at making a child self-reliant by enabling him to use his acquired knowledge and skills in practical affairs of life. Basic education has close relationship with the basic needs and interest of the education as the child is the focal point of education. The central point of this scheme is some handicraft, whose teaching will enable the student to solve the problems of his livelihood and at the same time develop qualities of good citizenship. In Gandhiji’s view, sound education must be rooted in the culture and life of the soil and therefore he strongly pleads for relating education to the environment.

MAIN FEATURES OF THE WARDHA SCHEME

The fundamental features of the scheme which was evolved in due course are as follows:

Free and compulsory education:

Gandhiji wanted education to be free and compulsory for all boys and girls between the ages of seven to fourteen. He evolved a scheme of education which would be in harmony with the culture and civilisation of the Indian people and which would solve the problem of mass education in a practical way. )     Free and compulsory education to be given for 8 years ( from 6 to 14 years) in two stages, instead of 7 to 14. the junior stage covering 5 years and the senior 3 years.

Craft Centred Education :

The basic idea of this scheme is to impart education through some craft or productive work. Craft work helps the child to acquire sensor and motor co-ordination and to appreciate the value of honest labour. Gandhiji was of the opinion that the method of training the mind through village handicraft from the beginning as the central focus would promote the real, disciplined development of the mind. The advantages of making craft as the centre of education as listed by the Zakir Hussain Committee are as follows—

•             “Psychologically, it is desirable, because it relieves the child from the tyranny of a purely academic and theoretical instruction against which its active nature is always making a healthy protest.”

•             “Secondly, the introduction of such practical productive work in education, to be participated in by all children of the nation will tend to break down the existing barriers of prejudice between manual and intellectual workers harmful alike for both.”

•             “Economically, carried out intelligently and efficiently, the scheme will increase the productive capacity of our workers and will also enable them to utilise their leisure advantageously.”

•             “From educational point of view, greater concreteness and reality can be given to the knowledge acquired by children through craft as knowledge will be related to life.”

Self supporting aspect of the Scheme:

The self supporting aspect of the scheme may be interpreted in two ways—

(a) Education that will help one to be self supporting in later life,

(b) Education which in itself is self supporting.

The basic idea of Gandhiji was that if the craft chosen is taught efficiently or thoroughly, it would enable the school to pay the cost of salaries of teachers. At the same time his aim was to accord dignity of labour and ensure modest and honest and livelihood for the student after leaving school.

Medium of instruction:

One of the resolutions that was adopted at the All India National Conference at Wardha was that education must be imparted through the mother tongue. In this connection, the Zakir Hussain Committee’s observation was that the proper teaching of the mother tongue is the foundation of all education. Without the capacity to speak effectively and to read and to write correctly and lucidly, no one can develop precision of thought or clarity of ideas. Moreover, it is a means of introducing the child to the rich heritage of his people’s ideas, emotions and aspirations.

Ideal of citizenship:

Another important feature of the basic scheme is the ideal of citizenship which is implicit in it. It aimed at giving the citizens of the future a keen sense of personal growth, dignity and efficiency and social services in a cooperative community. The Zakir Hussain Committee envisaged that the new generation must at least have an opportunity of understanding their own problems and rights and obligations. A completely new system is necessary to secure the minimum of education for the intelligent exercise of the rights and duties of citizens.

Flexible Curriculum and free Environment :

The flexibility of the curriculum and free environment for the child to perform according to his own capacity are another remarkable features of basic education. Under this scheme the teachers and students are free to work according to their interest and there is no compulsion for completing a prescribed portion due to fear of examinations. Necessary changes may be introduced in the curriculum if a situation demands. Thus, whatever the child learns according to his interest and capacity is permanently remembered by him. The teacher is also free to organise necessary environment for the development of the child.

The basic education is designed for children between seven and fourteen years of age and accordingly curriculum has been suggested. For the boys general science and for girls home science have been emphasized. The various subjects  are —

1. Basic Craft.

The craft chosen must not be taught mechanically, but systematically and scientifically keeping in view the social significance.

(i) Spinning and Weaving,

(ii) Carpentry,

(iii) Agriculture,

(iv) Fruit and Flower Cultivation,

(v) Leather work,

(vi) Culturing Fish,

(vii) Pottery,

(viii) Any handicraft according to the local need,

(iv) Home Science for girls.

2. Mother tongue.

3. Mathematics.

4. Geography, History and Civics to be combined as Social Studies.

5. Painting and Music.

6. P.T., Drill and Sports etc.

7. General Science comprising Physics Chemistry, Botany, Zoology ,Hygiene and Nature Study etc.

8. Hindi for that area in which it is not the mother tong

9) English has not been included as a subject of study.

10) Although the medium of instruction is mother tongue, all students must learn Hindi language.

11) There is no place for religious and moral education in the curriculum

12)     A school of say 5 ½ hours could roughly be divided on the following basis:

Physical activities…                                                             20 minutes

Mother Tongue…                                                                  20 minutes

Social Studies & General Science                                     60 minutes

Art                                                                                           40 minutes

Arithmetic                                                                               20 minutes

Craft work including study of correlated subjects…                      2 ½ hours

Thus the craft work will have 2 ½ hours instead of 3 hrs & 20 min.

13)     External examinations are to be abolished. The day-to-day work of the student is to be the determining factor.

14)     Text books to be avoided as far as possible.

15)     Cleanliness and health, citizenship, play and recreation are to be given sufficient importance.

EVALUATION OF THE WARDHA SCHEME OF EDUCATION

Merits of Wardha Schem

I.      Craft Work in School:

Modern educational thought is practically unanimous in commending the idea of educating children through some suitable form of productive work. This method is considered to be the most effective approach to the problem of providing an integral all-sided education. It is useful on account of the following:

1)     Psychologically, it is desirable, because it relieves the child from the tyranny of a purely academic and theoretical instruction against which its active nature is always making a healthy protest. It balances the intellectual and practical elements of experience, and may be made an instrument of educating the body and the mind in coordination.

2)  Socially considered,   It is also  productive as it is based on the principle of work. Work occupies the central place in basic education. The system is production oriented and helps in the programme of national  reconstruction the introduction of such practical productive work in education, to be participated in by all the children of the nation, will tend to break down the existing barriers of prejudice between manual and intellectual workers, harmful alike for both. It will also cultivate in the only possible way a true sense of dignity of labor and of human solidarity – an ethical and moral gain of incalculable significance.

3)   The scheme is financially sound and acceptable in a poor country like India, where about half of the total illiterate people of the world reside. It is helpful for rapid expansion of elementary education with less burden on public exchequer  Economically considered, carried out intelligently and efficiently, the scheme will increase the productive capacity of our workers and will also enable them to utilize their leisure advantageously.

4)     From the strictly educational point of view greater concreteness and reality can be given to the knowledge acquired by children by making some significant craft the basis of education. Knowledge will thus become related to life, and its various aspects will be correlated with one another.

II.      Activity Curriculum:

In order to work out an effective and natural coordination of the various subjects and to make the syllabus a means of adjusting the child intelligently and actively to his environment, the Wardha Scheme laid stress on three centres, intrinsically inter-connected, as the foci for the curriculum, i.e. the Physical Environ ment, the Social Environment, and Craft Work, which is their natural meeting point since it utilizes the resources of the former for the purpose of the latter.

The Wardha Scheme of Education attempted to draft an ‘activity curriculum’, which implies that our school must be places of work, experimentation and discovery, not of passive absorption of information imparted at second hand. It stressed this principle by advocating that all teaching should be carried on through concrete life situations relating to craft or to social and physical environment, so that whatever a child learns becomes assimilated into his growing activities.

III.      Learning by Doing:

Learning by doing sums up the educational methods of basic education. It is absolutely wrong to think that true education is acquired from books alone. There are other methods and sources which are more helpful in acquiring true knowledge. ‘Chalk’ and ‘Talk’ lessons are also not very useful. All educationists have condemned bookish knowledge. Ghandiji believed that school must be a ‘doing things’. In basic system of education children acquire the knowledge of the formal school subjects as a bye-product of purposeful activities.

IV.      Social Activities and Community Life:

The corner-stone of Basic education lies in the activities and the community life of school. Apart from craft, productive activities and occupations find an important place in the curriculum of a basic school. Living together and doing together is the soul of any progressive system of education and basic system fully incorporates this in its curriculum and methods of teaching.

V.      Self-Sufficiency:

Ghandiji felt that the educational system as introduced by the foreigners in India was expensive and it was very difficult for a poor country like India to spread education if it follows that system. So Ghandiji went a step further and declared that New Eduaction must not only be worked centered but must also be self-supporting.

“…You have to start with the conviction that looking to the need of the villages of India our rural education ought to be made self-supporting if it is to be compulsory. This education ought to be for the kind of insurance against unemployment.

Not only from economic point of view, must this education be self-sufficient, but also from social and moral point of view. This means that at the end of the period of basic education the individual should become self-reliant and self-supporting.”

VI.      Modification of the Views of Mahatma Gandhi on Self-sufficiency

r. Zakir Hussain Committee pointed out the danger of overdoing of craft work and warned that oral work, drawing and expression work should not be lost sight of. The educative aspect is more important than the economic aspect. It thus shifted the emphasis from complete support to partial self-support. It was felt that with the earnings through sale of craft products, uniform for the students or mid-day meal or purchase of some necessary equipment may be made.

VII.      Free and Compulsory Education:

Seven years free and compulsory education is one of the fundamentals of his scheme and this cardinal principle has been emphasized due to two reasons:

(i)     India is a democratic country and success of democracy depends upon the enlightened citizens. Our great leaders like Gokhale worked for the introduction of compulsory education for long time. In his historic speech, Gokhale said that if elementary education was to spread in India, it must be made compulsory and if it was to be compulsory it must be free.

(ii)   Ghandiji dream of classless society, free of exploitation — economic and social—can be realized only if everyone is educated

VIII.      Mother Tongue as a Medium of Instruction:

It is now universally recognized that the young child can learn with great facility if the medium of instruction is its mother tongue. Ghandiji asserted that no education is possible through foreign medium and all elementary education must be imparted through the medium of mother tongue.

IX.      Education through Correlation:

Correlation is one of the important feature and crux of basic education. In this scheme of education, Ghandiji wished to give knowledge as a compact whole. The modern educationist also advocated this. The basic education is therefore, an effort to correlate the life of the child with his immediate physical and social environment. It is an effort to make knowledge easier and at the same time more meaningful.

X.      Integrated knowledge:

Basic education treats knowledge as an integrated whole. Curriculum is build around three integrally related centers:        (i) Physical environment, (ii) Social environment, and (iii) Craft work.

XI.      Relationship with Life:

A basic school must become an active environment where teaching is not cut off from the life of the miniature community of the school and community itself. Education is to be directed to the need of life. It is not to pursue an idea which has no relation with or is totally isolated from the real situations of life.

XII.      Training in Citizenship:

Basic education aims at developing ideas of mutual understanding and habits of cooperative and mutually helpful living among the students through its various practical and constructive programs the new education aims at giving the citizens of future a keen sense of personal warmth, dignity and efficiency. It is likely to strengthen in them the desire of self-improvement and social service in a cooperative community.

XIIL.      Greater freedom for the teacher and the taught:

In basic education, discipline does not mean order and external restraint but an intelligent use of freedom. The teacher gets many opportunity to make experiments, think for himself and put his idea and plan to practice.

XIV.    The system was able to remove class and caste distinction.

It helps to bring social solidarity and national integration.It also removes the barriers between the educated and the non-educated, between manual work and intellectual work, between the rich and the poor and village and the town.

Basic education is not a class education: the ultimate objective of basic education is to create a social order in which there is no unnatural divisions between ‘have’ and ‘have-nots’ and every one is assure of a living wage and the right to freedom.

XV.      Basic education in rural as well as in urban areas:

It is wrong to assume that basic education is intended to be imparted in rural areas only. “In fact, in one sense there is greater need for basic education in urban areas than in rural areas. In rural areas the children who participate in the life of the farm or allied occupation of their families have certain types of further education. In performing their jobs the children come in to direct contact with actual life and with the experience they get forms the basis of further education. On the other hand in large towns and big industrial cities the children miss the opportunity for rich experiences and direct contact with life”, observed Dr. K.L. Shrimali.

Limitations of of Wardha Scheme

1-Unsound Psychological Foundations of Wardha Scheme of Education:

“The delicate but inexorable laws governing the development of the tender mind of the child have been completely ignored. The child is treated just as a policeman or a soldier, merely as a unit in a homogeneous mass. His individuality is ignored. He is viewed merely as a means to an end—the end being earning capacity and citizenship of sorts.

“play is the only means by which creative energy can be released. Enlightened and informed educational opinion all over the civilized world is dedicatedly against forcing the child to learn a craft before he is twelve plus. It is nothing short of cruelty to make the child earn an anna or half an anna per hour during the stage when he ought to be playing and enjoying himself.

“There are three aspect of human nature—cognitive, affective and co native. The Wardha Scheme emphasizes the last aspect piously hoping that the student will wily-nilly get trained in the first through his training in the last. The middle aspect is completely ignored.

1-Undue Emphasis on Craft as the Only Basis of Correlation: “

It is impossible to establish any natural association between craft and all the subjects of cultural value which any sane system of education should cover through its curriculum. Teaching should be concrete and should be based on the child’s active experience in his environment. But it is absurd to hang all knowledge from the peg of single craft.

1-No Place for Religious Education:

“Education suited to our national genius should have definite religious basis, with contempt of worldly pursuits in its core. Craft-centered education is decidedly alien to our ancient ideals.

2-Basic Education not Suited in an Age of Industrialization:

As ours is a system of education which claims to produce an integrated individual, the emphasis is out of place in a community which has its face turned towards developing its economy to the full. So far Basic education fails to relate to the economic policy of state. But if this point is ignored, we shall find ourselves burdened with an educational system which turns out misfits even more rapidly than the one with which we are so dissatisfied .With rapid industrialization of India, knowledge of science and mathematics may become more desirable than skill in handicrafts.

1-Neglect of the child:

In a hurry to pay more attention to craft, it has neglected the child. Basic education is looked upon more as a social and economic duty than as a joyful adventure.” An Craft is only a slogan, a fiction, which is practiced on commercial occasions for the benefits of visitors. In a basic school only two-third or half the normal time is given to academic education, the rest being taken up by crafts. And further, since on the time-table academic subjects generally come after the craft work, mostly agriculture, students are sometime too tired to take to academic work kindly .Students spend one-third or half the time for craft work without acquiring any dexterity worth speaking of in any craft.

CAUSES OF FAILURE OF BASIC EDUCATION

After the independence Basic scheme of education made good progress for about a decade but gradually due to several difficulties it failed to become a permanent and lasting feature of our educational system . The causes may be —

The self supporting aspect of Basic Education received severe criticism in the academic circle. Teachers, social leaders and educational administrators had shown an indifferent attitude towards it. It was argued that the scheme turns a school into a centre of small scale industry. Moreover, teachers had to depend upon the earnings of the students.This had a demoralising effect on teacher-pupil relationship.

Too much emphasis on craft had led the neglect of liberal education. Very often the craft is not properly selected from the point of view of education and social significance and teaching through craft had become just a slogan.

Another criticism levelled against Basic Education was that a single craft can and should not be the basis of the entire educational process. It may not help in the development of liberal education and thus would create an imbalance in the educational system between vocational and intellectual education.

The method of correlation as technique of instruction was not stressed and sincerely followed. Correlation is no doubt a sound principle of education but correlation of the subjects through craft may appear to be sometimes unusual and time consuming.

Basic Education is often regarded as inferior type of education meant for the poor villagers. It has nothing to do with the urban people, who usually sent their children to modern type of schools. The general public had no confidence in basic schools because of the degraded social value accorded to it. Thus Basic education failed to become an integral part of our national system of education.

Basic Education can in no way help in the progress of modern scientific and technological development of the society, which was the need of the day. Rapid changes and modernisation of our society can only be possible through the application of modern science and technology in the fields and factories.

Lack of finance and the absence of sound administrative policy was also responsible for the failure of Basic Education. Practically there was no coordination between the official and non-official agencies engaged in the organisation and development of Basic education.

Teacher occupies the central position in Basic Education. Lack of adequate supply of efficient, trained and sincere teachers was one the most important cause for the failure of this scheme of education. Suitable orientation and training of teachers of basic schools was highly needed, which was rare. The majority of the teachers had no faith in this system.

Thus, it is quite justified to say that the fundamental principles of basic education are still valid and fruitful in the context of our present educational reform. They are relevant to be used as guiding principles of modern education. In fact, it needs to be reformed on modern lines then it may serve as one of the most interesting and fruitful techniques of instruction at elementary stage.

Gandhiji keenly wanted to create a new social order based on truth and non-violence. This can be brought about only through a silent social revolution. He believed that revolutionary change in the educational system can help to bring this silent social revolution. The scheme of Basic Education does not stand for mere technique, it stands for a new spirit and approach to all education

 

 

 

 

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D.

Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed.

Former Principal, A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

Discipline is the bridge between goals and accomplishment.
Jim Rohn

The word “discipline” is derived from the Latin root “disciples” meaning a pupil or disciple. Naturally, the problem of discipline was taken to consist in bringing the conduct of the pupils into conformity with ideas and standards of the master. The pupil had to develop the virtue of docility and plasticity so that the teacher might impress his personality on them and mould them in his own image. This was the conception of the relationship between pupil and teacher everywhere.

Discipline is an art that requires knowledge, skill, sensitivity, and self-confidence. Like any art, it is one that you will acquire through training and experience and it becomes easier with practice.

Discipline is the required action by a teacher toward a student (or group of students), after the student’s behaviour disrupts the ongoing educational activity or breaks a pre-established rule created by the teacher, the school administration or the general society. Discipline, guiding children’s behaviour, or setting limits are all concerned with helping children learn how to take care of themselves, other people, and the world around them.

Purpose of the discipline is also develop the attitudes, habits, ideas, and code of conduct through the medium of the social life of the school which should be organized on a cooperative basis and inspired by higher ethical teaching of religion.

It gives realization to the school that it must be reconstructed on the lines of the development and conscious pursuit of common ends in a cooperative spirit, each member contributing to the common good in accordance with special gifts. Life in the school thus organized becomes similar to the, and continuous with, life in democratic society, and discipline becomes co-extensive with the whole of school life.

Its modern concept is very broad and inclusive one. Discipline is a major component of education because, if the teacher does not maintain the discipline in the classroom, the teaching and learning process cannot be accomplished. It is a first step in creating a learning environment.

Philosophical Theories of Discipline

In his book, The Child’s Path to Freedom, Norman Macman and Adams in his book, Modern Development in Educational Practices have classified discipline into three categories according to various philosophical doctrines.

(1)   Repressionistic Discipline.

(2)   Impressionistic Discipline.

(3)   Emancipationistic Discipline.

Repressionistic Discipline

Repressionistic discipline is based on the ancient doctrine of repression. According to Jermiah a child is basically evil and mischievous. Have fear and punishment must be used to control and modify the child. Despotic rulers, in those days, used to enforce obedience through harsh, fearful and rigid laws. In the same way authoritarian teachers took recourse to very hard rules to enforce obedience and discipline in the class. These educationists believed that to develop a child to a higher stage of life, it was essential to rigidly and absolutely control and modify his basic instincts into predetermined channels of thinking and behaving. Teachers in schools used the hardest and often crudest means to enforce obedient and discipline among children. Their slogan was ‘spare the rod and spoil the child.’ Such was the practice in Europe and India in old times.

Majority of teachers believe that there is no better medicine to educate a child than fear and punishment.  Punishment can reform even the most mischievous child.  Harshest punishment must be given to reform the indiscipline child. Fear of punishment keeps children away from unsocial behaviour towards others. Without fear there is no love. Hence a sense of fear must be inculcated in the child by the teacher.

But it is also a fact that  repression creates a feeling of hatred in the child. He becomes a rebel and indiscipline. Constant fear and punishment scares away the child from education and he drops out. Repression creates mental complexes. Repression mars the normal development of a child. Repression creates forgetfulness. Fear may compel obedience in school, but not outside. Repression is the antithesis of freedom.

In a democratic set up, feelings of equality, fraternity and social justice are to be developed in children. Which cannot be developed through repression. Hence there is no place for repressionistic discipline is this age of democracy.

Impressionistic Discipline

Based upon the philosophy of Idealism, the votaries of impressionistic discipline oppose any kind of punishment in education. They emphasize that to maintain class order, the teacher should exercise the influence of his personality. The teacher should try to structure a model environment before children, by means of his own ability, conduct and character,

so that they form a character of high order by imitation of the teacher. Under the influence of the profoundly creative personality of teacher, the problem of indiscipline will not arise at all. The teacher should try to develop discipline by love, affection, sympathy and consideration towards such children by the examples of his own conduct and character.

Actually  the process of educational development goes on smoothly under impressionistic discipline because the relationship of teacher and children is based upon love, sympathy and regard. Children imitate the achievements of teacher and behave in a desirable way. Children develop normally and naturally as it is a mid way process between arbitrary freedom and authoritative repression .Impression promotes self-discipline.

Impressionistic discipline gives greater importance to teacher who is likely to develop sense of self-conceit and snobbery. He may consider himself to be the sole creator of a child’s character which is likely to mar the development of both.

As the child is not able to develop according to his own inherent nature, impression is worse than repression and emancipation. The child becomes a carbon copy of the teacher and thus loses his own mental freedom.  The child becomes a blind follower of teacher. He loses the capacity of independent thinking, understanding, initiative and self-assertion.

It is difficult to find model teacher today.In modern times such teachers are few in number whose character and conduct can be put before children as ideals and examples. Hence impressionistic discipline remains an ideal far removed from realization.

Emancipationistic  Discipline

The basis of emancipationistic discipline is psychological. Its slogan is freedom. Its protagonists agree neither with repressionistic nor with impressionistic concept of discipline. They believe in the inherent goodness of child. If free environment is provided for development, children will develop like flowers. Moral qualities will develop in them through a natural and divine process of growth. Rousseau and Herbert Spencer acclaimed emancipatory concept of discipline as the best one. Children should be allowed full freedom to develop according to their natural tendencies, interests and tastes so that they freely express their inner urges and develop themselves to the fullest extent possible.

As a child does all his activities freely and learns by doing and experiencing, the traits of self-discipline, self-reliance and self-dynamism develop in him naturally. As freedom is the birth right of a man, it is improper to impose restraints over the child and circumscribe his freedom. Emancipatory discipline leads to self-discipline in a suitable and smooth way.

Emancipationist discipline does not create any emotional complex in child. He remains mentally and physically healthy.

But the innate tendencies of a child are generally animal instincts. If he is allowed to express his raw instincts, he will harm society in various ways.  A child is incapable of distinguishing between good and bad. The interference of some mature person is essential to foster this capacity.  Undue freedom may harm the child himself. Indentifying freedom with his rights only, a child becomes indifferent towards his duties and obligations.

Freedom often develops self interest which in turn gives rise to indolence and indifference towards his responsibilities. A child is not born with the sense of self-discipline and self-control, which cannot be developed providing him all freedom in the very beginning. It is neither good to the child nor to the society.

Though a child needs freedom for proper development, this does not mean that he should be allowed freedom without limits and control. Only so much freedom should be given to a child as is essential for his development in the right direction.

Idealism and Concept of Discipline

As for the discipline, majority of Idealists finds sheer discipline which is separated from the constructive teaching process as undesirable. According to him, discipline should be considered as an end product instead of an input and at the same time is a part of the teaching process and should be in the personality of the teacher. One should achieve discipline through freedom not  behavior should have internal control rather than external control. For them authority begins by being external, but should end in becoming internal through habit formation and self-control.

Thus in brief it can be said that in idealism, the aim of education is to discover and develop each individual’s abilities and full moral excellence in order to better serve society. The curricular emphasis is subject matter of mind: literature, history, philosophy, and religion. Teaching methods focus on handling ideas through lecture, discussion, and Socratic dialogue (a method of teaching that uses questioning to help students discover and clarify knowledge). Introspection, intuition, insight, and whole-part logic are used to bring to consciousness the forms or concepts which are latent in the mind. Character is developed through imitating examples and heroes

Naturalism and concept of Discipline

Punishment should be constituted by natural consequences of wrong deeds; should be certain, but tempered with sympathy. As we should teaches in accordance with the rhythms of Nature, so we should also punish as Nature punishes.

Naturalism emerged at a time when education was confined within the rigid rules of discipline by the influence of Idealism. Naturalism aims at making education free from the bondage of rigid discipline under which children were tortured.” A child born lives and dies in a state of slavery.  At the time of his birth he is stitched in swaddling clothes and at the time his death he is nailed in a coffin. And as long as he preserve the human form he is fettered by our institutions. Man was born free and everywhere he is in shackles.”- Jean-Jacques Rousseau Naturalism, as a philosophy of education advocates maximum freedom for the child and further stresses in freeing the child from the tyranny of rigidity, interference and strict discipline.. The freedom of child disciplines him and he is naturally controlled by his own learning and experiences. There is stress given to discipline by natural consequences.

Since classroom discipline usually is associated with methodology the naturalist asserts a fourth characteristic of sound teaching, namely that all discipline should derive from the natural elements of the situation. The situation will provide a form of innate discipline that should replace that of the teacher. To illustrate, a child learns to avoid hot objects because he has experienced the discomfort and pain which follow his touching them the pupil learn to cooperate with other pupil when he finds himself ostracized by his class mates. .for example- Every time a child puts his finger into the candle flames he gets a burn. Always it happens; always it is a burn. Their are no harsh words, no snapping and snarling, just a burn proportionate to the size of the flame and the extent and duration of the contact. But always there is that much. By this means Nature quickly teachers the normal child the dangers of fire, and exemplifies for parents and teachers what is desirable in corrective relations with children.

If a child is slow in dressing, for a walk, leave him at home. If he breaks a window, let him sit in the cold. If he over -eats, let him be sick. In fact, let him suffer the consequences for which he is responsible himself for going against nature.  When a child begins to expect such consequences as certain to follow if he does not measure up to what is expected of him, he will act so as to enjoy the benefits which follow from appropriate conduct. Furthermore, when punishment of this sort is used, ruffled feelings do not get mixed up with discipline. It is easier for parent or teacher to hold a firm position with the child and yet not lose rapport with him completely. Even the disobedient child should feel that he has not lost all the sympathy of his guardians. But in the common snapping and snarling of parents, the emotional break between parent and child is too sharp and may do more damage than the punishment does good

Realism and Concept of Discipline

Discipline is adjustment to objectivity. It is necessary in order to enable the child to adjust himself to his environment and concentrate on his work. Bringing out change in the real world is impossible. The student himself is a part of this world. He has to admit this fact and adjust himself to the world.

A disciplined student is one who does not withdraw from the cruelties, tyrannies, hardships and shortcomings pervading the world. Realism has vehemently opposed withdrawal from life. One has to adjust oneself to this material world.

The student must be disciplined until he has learned to make the proper responses. Wild says of the student that it is. His duty…. to learn those arduous operations by which here and there it may be revealed to him as it really is. One tiny grain of truth is worth more than volumes of opinion.

The existentialists want to give full freedom to the child. But the child should know the nature of his ‘self’ and recognize his being and convert imperfection into perfection.     They do not want the child to become selfish, autocratic and irresponsible. Freedom is needed only for natural development. Education should be provided according to the child’s powers and the needs. The relation of the child with his ‘self’ should be strengthened rather than severed. The child has to make ‘choices’ and decisions.

Child thrives better when relieved from intense competition, harsh discipline, and fear of failure. Thus each child can grow to understand his own needs and values and take charge of the experiences for changing him. In this way self-evaluation is the beginning and end of the learning process, as learning proceeds, child is freely growing, fearless, understanding individual. Primary emphasis must always be on the child, as learner and not on the learning programmed. Child needs positive evaluation, not labels.

Humanism and Concept of Discipline

Discipline is adjustment to objectivity. It is necessary in order to enable the child to adjust himself to his environment and concentrate on his work. Bringing out change in the real world is impossible. The student himself is a part of this world. He has to admit this fact and adjust himself to the world. A disciplined student is one who does not withdraw from the cruelties, tyrannies, hardships and shortcomings pervading the world. Humanism has vehemently opposed withdrawal from life. One has to adjust oneself to this material world.

Pragmatism and Concept of Discipline

Pragmatism does not believe in external discipline enforced by the superior authority of the teacher. It supplements discipline with greater freedom of activity. They feel that discipline which is based on the principles of child’s activities and need is beneficial. They want that the interest of the child should be aroused, sustained and satisfied

Pragmatism does not believe in the traditional maxim “work while you work and play while you play”. Rather it advocates a discipline that can be maintained through play as work. According to the pragmatists, it is the mental attitude which converts a work into play and play into work

The pragmatists believe that the learner’s freedom is not anarchy or allowing the child to do anything without considering the consequences. Rather they believe in the purposeful co-operative activities carried on in a free and happy environment. c control comes from the cooperative context of shared activity In pragmatism there is no place for rewards and punishments as every activity is to be pursued in a social setting .

Marxism and Concept of Discipline

Yesipov and Goncharov, two well known Communist educations theorists, maintain that discipline must be an “inner condition.” Even when fear and punishment are used these should not be considered the best means of achieving true discipline. Rather, the pupil must live the disciplined life in school so that he will live it in adult life.

In the Marxist system, discipline is conceived as a virtue essential to achieve the goals of Communism. The school must insist on discipline not only because it is necessary for successful study and learning but also because it is necessary for life.

The characteristics of true Communist discipline are : (1) It must be based on an understanding of the necessity for norms of conduct. (2) It must be self-discipline, not one of obedience for obedience’ sake. The person will have so disciplined his will that he will always be ready to perform his duty in the best possible manner without waiting for the command to do so. (3) In its most perfect form, discipline will reflect as state of unquestioned obedience to authority when the situation demands that orders be given. (4) Discipline must habituate the individual to the performance of group (collective) activities. (5) True discipline must be founded on mutual respect for all members of the collective. (6)  Finally, discipline is “resolute, that is, it surmount difficulties, prompts the completion of every task, subject conduct to high purposes and conquers motives of low degree.”

The discipline of pupils is nurtured by the general practice and the whole content of the work of the school : skillful teaching of school subjects, strict regime in for the entire school life, unwavering observation by each pupil of the Rules for School Children’s collective, and rational use of measures and rewards and punishments. The leading role in this work belongs to the teachers.

The “Rules For School Children” mentioned in the quotation form an integral part of all teaching-learning methods. The student should study well, be on time for classes, pay attention to the teacher’s lecture and fellow pupils recitations, and do his own homework well. When a pupil is reciting he should stand erectly and remain standing until the teacher gives him permission to be seated. If he wishes to answer a question he should raise his hand and wait for the teacher to call him. All students must rise when the teacher (or visitor) enters or leaves the room. The “Rules” also cover dress, health habits, use of language on playground, courtesy to visitors at school, and deportment to and from school. In short, they control the behavior of school children during all their waking hours.

Perennialism and Concept of Discipline

Because man’s highest characteristic — the one differentiating him from the lower life forms — is his reason, he must use it to direct his life and control his instincts. Men are free, not determined. They are responsible for their actions. We cannot excuse a child’s actions because of his environment or personal problems. Because men are rational, they must live rationally. Hence, children must be held to the standards of reason, and this is one function of education

Students should be taught hard work, respect for authority, and discipline. Teachers are to help students keep their non-productive instincts in check, such as aggression or mindlessness. Discipline in the classroom is essential to learning. A noisy classroom is not a desirable place for learning to take place. Order is vital.  Students cannot always think of the future. Consequently, teachers and parents must help students overcome their desire for immediate ends and direct them to future objectives. Self-discipline is fine, but most of the times it is insufficient. Adults therefore must give direction.  The classroom is teacher-centered. The teacher as a professional is far more likely to know what her students will need to know in the future than do they. She/he is responsible for the education and intellectual growth of his/her students. Education requires the mastery of content, of subject matter.

Education requires mental discipline. Study is hard work. Concentration and effort is required. Students must therefore being cultured in the process.

Talent without discipline is like an octopus on roller skates. There’s plenty of movement, but you never know if it’s going to be forward, backwards, or sideways.

H. Jackson Brown, Jr.

 

 

 

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D.

Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed.

Former Principal, A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

Thousands of candles can be lighted from a single candle, and the life of the candle will not be shortened. Happiness never decreases by being shared.
Buddha

In India during the time of Buddha, there was a social discrimination in the society. This discrimination was according to profession of the man, and  according to birth. In the society there were four division of man of whom Brahman was superior. Brahmanism dominated the society and established their supremacy in the country. They enjoyed rights for religious training and education. But other category of people deprived of their religious and educational rights. At that time there were 62 heretical doctrines in existence and priesthood got upper hand. In this background a religious revolution started in ancient India in 600 B.C. and a new doctrine or system developed which is called Buddhist doctrine or Buddhist philosophy. It is to be said that on the foundation of Buddhism a new and special Education System originated in ancient India. Buddhism made a tremendous movement which played a valuable role in the development of Education System in ancient India or ancient Buddhist world. It is well-known that with the rise of Buddhism in India there dawned the golden age of India’s culture and civilisation. There was progress in all aspects of Indian civilisation under the impact of Buddhism. There arose many centres of learning which did not exist before.

Aims of education

The goal of Buddha’s teaching-the goal of Buddhist education is to attain wisdom. In Sanskrit, the language of ancient India, the Buddhist wisdom was called ―Anuttara-Samyak-Sambhodi‖ meaning the perfect ultimate wisdom. The Buddha taught us that the main objective of our practice or cultivation was to achieve this ultimate wisdom. The Buddha further taught us that everyone has the potential to realize this state of ultimate wisdom, as it is an intrinsic part of our nature, not something one obtains externally.

The chief aim of Buddhist education was all round development of child’s personality. This included his physical, mental, moral and intellectual development. The aim of Buddhist Education is to make a free man, a wise, intelligent, moral, non-violent & secular man. Students became judicious, humanist, logical and free from superstitious. Students became free from greed, lust and ignorance. Buddhist Education was wide open and available to the people of all walks of life. The principal goal of the Buddhist Education is to change an unwise to wise, beast to priest.

The Buddhist education system aimed at regaining our intrinsic nature. it also teaches absolute equality which stemmed from Buddha‘s recognition that all sentient beings possess this innate wisdom and nature. Buddha‘s teaching helps us to realize that innate, perfect ,ultimate wisdom .With wisdom, we can then solve all our problems and turn suffering into happiness.

In the Buddhist era, religion was given top priority and education was imparted through it. The chief aim of education was propagation of religion and inculcation of religious feelings and education served as a mean to achieve salvation or nirvana.

Preparation for life, there was a provision for imparting wordily and practical knowledge along with religious education so that when the students entered normal life they may be able to earn their livelihood.

The nature of mass education

In the early period Buddhist Education was limited within the monasteries and only for the members of the monastery. But later on it was open to all, even lay people got scope to have education in those institutions. In modern days Buddhist Education became wide open and embraced people of all walks of life. The aim of Buddhist Education is to change an unwise to wise, beast hood to Buddha hood.

Buddhist Education made revolutionary change in the society. The Buddhists in the world first made Education open to all. Students irrespective of caste, creed, religion got opportunity to have education which was denied by the superior class in the society. In India also, in Vedic Educational schools students from lower classes were refused to get admission.

The monasteries or Buddha Vihars were the chief centres of learning and only the Budhist monks could be admitted to them for education. Thus there was no planned arrangement for mass education as such during the period. It form this position it would be wrong to construce that the Budhist monks were unkindful of the education of the people in general. So at the time of begging alms the monks used to remove the religious doubts of the people through their interesting conversation or short and alp lectures. Thus the people in general received moral and religious education from the monks.

Women education-

Women education during Buddhist period was at its lowest ebb, as the women folk were despised in the sense that Lord Buddha had regarded them as the source of all evils. So he had advised during his life time not to admit women in monasteries, but after some time due to the insistence of his dear pupil Anand, Buddha had permitted about 500 women along with his step mother for admission in the Vihars with many restriction and reservations.

When Buddhist monasteries had developed into colleges of international reputation, women did not receive any education because of their early marriages. In the early history of Buddhism, however the permission was given to women to enter the order and gave a fairly good impetus to female education, especially in aristocratic and commercial sections of society. Large number of ladies from these circles joined the order and became life-long students of religion and philosophy. Their example must have given an indirect encouragement to the spread of education among lay women as well.

Besides this, the rules of admission of women in Sangh were hard enough. Two years of probation was fixed for women-monks for their permanent membership .Strict rules were enforced for women monks. . The women monks were not allowed to meet any male monk in loneliness and their residence was arranged separately at a distant place. They were not given any permanent post in the sangh. Some monk could give her religious instruction twice a month in the presence of another monk. The assent of the whole Sangh was also considered essential. Moreover, they had to live separately, and they were instructed by a special monk twice in a month. They could not live lonely with the teacher too. Buddhist Sangh had given attention to the cultural development and social uplift of the women. Mostly women entered the Sangh out of keen interest and deep religious feelings. Some had also joined it to get rid of the troubles of the worldly affairs. As the Bhikshunis did not like to maintain inferior position, so they naturally were more interested in the studies leading pious life. Though, Buddhist literature does not speak much of the system of the education of Bhikshunis, yet there are some references of new comer Bhikshunis and taking charge of their education. It makes clear that there must have been some arrangement for their education.

There were Bhikshunis whose spiritual knowledge was very high and they could influence a good number of people. Many Bhikshunis took the duties of social services also. They serve the sick, orphans, etc., and considered it to be their prime duty. Some of them had studied the philosophy deeply and had become poetess and writers. . Some of them had studied even politics and took active part in politics of the day. Some of them had even gone to foreign countries to preach Buddhism. Sheelbhattarika, Prabhudevi and Viyanka were famous in those days as poets and writers. The sister of the Emperor Asoka Sanghamitra was very famous Bhikshunis, who had done remarkable services of Buddhism

Qualities and Responsibilities of the teacher-

The teacher himself must spend at least ten years as a monk and necessarily must have the purity of character, purity of thoughts and generosity. Both the teacher and student were responsible to the monastery. But regarding education, clothes, food and residence of the student monk, the teacher was fully responsible. The teacher was also responsible for any treatment of the student whenever he fell ill.

The duties of the teachers were imparting education to the students, writing Book, propagation of religion, discussion, and arrangement of debate for the clarification of serious subjects. The teachers were responsible for physical, mental, spiritual and moral development of the students. Teachers loved the students and helped them in every affair. They also took care of them during their diseases and agony. The teachers were responsible for their food, accommodation and other necessaries of livelihood. They kept eyes on the all round development of the students. Specially they were serious about the obeyance of the Sangha rules, meditation and concentration to their learning.

Both the teacher and the student were responsible to the monastery or the Budhist order. But regarding education, clothes , food and residence of the student monk, the teacher was wholly responsible. The teacher was also responsible for any treatment of the student whenever he fell ill. The teacher used to bestow all the affection to his student and used to educate his through lecture and question answer method.

Budhist philosophy admit the possible of attaining peace here and now, though, it start with a pessimistic note. Teacher, therefore, need not have any cry of despair. Bhikshus were the teacher. Budhist vihar as or monasteries have their methods of Imitation and training for the apprentices. The preceptor must give his disciple, all possible intellectual and spiritual help and guidance. There was mutual esteem between the teacher and the pupil. There relations were like father and son. The teacher was regarded as spiritual father or intellectual father of the student.

During Budhist period the place of teacher in the scheme of education was very important. There were the categories of teachers – Acharyas and Upadhayas. According to Sutras Literature Acharya may admit according to his unfettered discretion, a number of pupils, who would have to live with him at this house, for a minimum period of twelve years. He would not accept any fees from the pupils under this instruction. The progress shown by pupil was the only factor that determined the continence of his apprenticeship.

Concept of Student

The teachers were highly qualified. The aim of Buddhist Education is to make a free man, a wise, intelligent, moral, non-violent & secular man. Students became judicious, humanist, logical and free from superstitious. Students became free from greed, lust and ignorance. Buddhist Education was wide open and available to the people of all walks of life. The principal goal of the Buddhist Education is to change an unwise to wise, beast to priest.

The teachers were the guardian of the students.  They were responsible for physical, mental, spiritual and moral development of the students. Since Educational Institution (Monasteries) was residential therefore the relationship between the teachers and the students were very very cordial.

The student was expected to serve his teacher with all devotion. On rising in the morning the student will arrange everything for the daily routine of the teacher. He will cook his food and clean his clothes and utensils. Whatever he acquired through begging alms, he would place before teacher. The student had to prepare himself to receive education at any time whenever the teacher required him.

The Budhist system, enjoins upon the pupil the duty of serving this preceptor as a part of education. The pupils is to rise early in morning from the bed and give his teacher teeth-cleanser and water to rinse his mouth with; then, preparing a seat for him, serve him rice- milk in rinse his mouth with; then, preparing as seat for him, serve him rice milk in rinsed jug, and after his drinking it, wash the vessel and sweep the place. Afterwards he is to equip him for his begging round by giving him fresh undergarments, girdle, his two upper garments, and his alms- bowl rinsed and filled with water and then is to dress and equip himself similarly if he wants to accompany his teacher but must not walk too far from or near wants to accompany his teacher but must not walk too far from or near wants to accompany his teacher but must not walk too far from or near him. He is not to interrupt his teacher in speaking, even if he makes a mistake. There were also rules for the expulsion of a pupil by his teacher. In five cases a Saddhiviharika ought to be turned away; when he does not feel great affection for his Upajjhaya, nor great inclination towards him, nor much shame, nor great reverence, nor great devotion.

Sangha (Monastic) life was residential; therefore a cordial relationship between the teachers and the students grew up. Their relationship can be compared with the relationship of a father and a son. The teachers were the guardians and sincere for their mutual relationship, happiness, development and responsibilities.

Admission

Admission in monastery-monasteries was the centre for imparting education during the Buddhist period. For admission the student had to present himself before the teacher and request him for giving education. The teacher was fully responsible for education of his pupil. In turn, the pupil had also to be responsive to the instructions received from the teacher. The student was not at all accountable to any other Bhikshuk in the monastery.

The novices first entered into the Sangha (Bhikkhu Sangha), then had to follow the monastic rules and Sangha rules. Even today these rules are followed. There are many rules regarding food, dress, bed room, meditation, dedication and other rules as laid down by the Sangha. They had to undergo with physical exercise for maintenance of their health. They had to clean the campus, rooms, halls, serve the teachers (Achariya) and assist them in various field. This was the primary duties of the students     After admission the students had to follow monastic rules along with their syllabus and they were classified according to merit. The period of Education was 12 years.

They had to follow the advice of the teachers and obey them. In this way they had to pass twelve years in learning. Students put questions to the teachers; teachers answered the question and discussed matters related to their Education. Students had to perform daily routine works beyond learning.

The teacher of a budhist monastery were empowered to expel any student on charge of misconduct or any type of  serious disobedience. However, the student was expelled only when it was definitely ascertained that he lacked faith and respect for the teacher and the other things related to the sanctity of the monastery. After the death of the teacher or when the teacher changed his religion or left the monastery for elsewhere, the students also deserted the monastery. The education of the concerned students ended then and there.

Pabbaja ceremony

Pabbaja was an accepted ceremony of the Buddhist monasteries. Pabbaja means going out . According to this ceremony the students after being admitted to a monastery had to renounce all his worldly and family relationship. An individual belonging to any caste could be admitted to a monastery and after being admitted he did not belong to any caste. ‘.After admission he had to change his old clothes and all old ways and the manners of living. For the Pabbajja ceremony the minimum age was eight years.

For pabbaja ceremony the individual had  to get his head fully shaved and put on yellow clothes. In this shape he was presented before the presiding Bhikshu. On  presentation this individual would pray for admission to the monastery. On his prayer the head Bikshu would administer three basic advices:

(1)   I take refuse with Budha.

(2)   I take refuge with religion.

(3)   I take refuge with the order.

The aspirant for admission used to pronounce these advices very distinctly. Then his admission was permitted. On being admitted the individual was called a Sharman.

. Rules for shramner—

1. Not to kill any living being

2. Not to accept anything given to him.

3. Live free from the impurity of character.

5. Not to tell lie

6. Not to take food at improper time

7. Not to use luxurious things

Upasampada ceremony

After pabbaja the Buddhist monk had to undergo the Upasampada ceremony. This ceremony was different from pabbaja ceremony. . After the Pabbajja ceremony education continued for twelve years. When the student received twelve years education he had to undergo the Upasampada ceremony , that it is at the age of twenty years,Upasampada ceremony was performed. This ceremony was democratic in nature.  The Sharman has to present himself in front before all other monks of the monastery. One could be admitted for this ceremony only when the majority of the monks voted in favour of the same. After this ceremony the Sharman was regarded as full- fledge member of the monastery. On this occasion all his worldly and family relationships ended.

Discipline

The Core of Buddha’s teaching-the Buddha teaching contains three major points discipline, meditation and wisdom. Wisdom is the goal and deep meditation or concentration in the crucial process toward achieving wisdom. Discipline through observing the precepts, is the method that helps one to achieve deep meditation; wisdom will then be realized naturally. Buddha‘s entire teaching as conveyed in the sutras never really depart from these three points.

After getting education in the Buddhist schools, colleges and universities one can not do any injustice, tell a lie, commit theft, can not kill, can not be addicted in wine and make himself free from moral turpitude. In this way students become free from greed, lust, enmity and ignorance.

Buddhism encompasses the entire collection of works by Buddha Shakyamuni and is called the Tripitaka.This can be classified into three categories sutra, Vinaya (precepts or rules) Sastra (Commentaries) which emphasize meditation, discipline and wisdom respectively.

The monk and the students in Buddhist period were following the ‗simple living and high thinking‖principle.their lives were full of purity, nobelness, dutifulness and humanity and are suppose to follow the Astang Marg- the word Samma  means ‘proper’, ‘whole’, ‘thorough’, ‘integral’, ‘complete’, and ‘perfect’ -

1. Samma-Ditthi — Complete or Perfect Vision

2. Samma-Sankappa — Perfected Emotion or Aspiration,

3. Samma-Vaca — Perfected or whole Speech

4. Samma-Kammanta — Integral Action.

5. Samma-Ajiva — Proper Livelihood.

.  6. Samma-Vayama  — Complete or Full Effort, Energy or Vitality

7. Samma-Sati — Complete or Thorough Awareness.

8. Samma-Samadhi — Full, Integral or Holistic Samadhi.

Syllabus :

Buddhist Education system developed on the basis of some basic principles. This education gave emphasis on the moral, mental and physical development and also to divert the students towards the Sangha rules and guide them to follow it. The main stress was given to have a clear idea of Tripitaka which consists of Sutta Pitaka, Binoy Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka. The entire Tripitaka consists of Buddhas teachings, message, philosophy and rules for the Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunies.

The curriculum was chiefly spiritual in nature. It was because the chief aim of education was to attain salvation. So the study of the religious books was most important. This type of curriculum was meant only for the monks. Besides these spinning, weaving, printing of the clothes, tailoring, sketching, accountancy, medicines, surgery and coinage were the other subjects of Budhist education.

At the initial stage medium of education was mother tongue, later it included Pali and Prakrit and in the following days Sanskrit also included as a medium of instruction. Specially the Mahayana Teachers achieved distinction in practicing Buddhism in Sanskrit. A special Sanskrit Buddhist literature developed. Mention may be made here that at the hands of Nagarjun, Asanga, Basubandhu, Santideva, Aryadeva and Candrakisti Buddhist philosophy and literature made tremendous progress through Sanskrit.

In later period according to the demand of the society and professional education, art, sculpture, architecture, medicine also included in the syllabus. Buddhist Education came out from the religious arena and went out for the benefit of the mankind.

There were two types of education primary and higher education. In primary education reading, writing and arithmetic were taught and in higher education religion philosophy Ayurveda, military training was included. Everyone was free to choose his subject without any restriction.

Vocation education was not ignored during the budhist system of education. The monks of Vihar were taught spinning, weaving and sewing in order that they meet their clothing requirement. They were taught architecture as well. Education in architecture enabled them to build up new Vihars or repair the old ones. Similarly the householders following Buddhism but living outside Vihar were given training in different type of and also earn their livelihood.

It is to be mentioned that Buddhist Educational Syllabus included Vedic subjects also. In this way difference of Buddhist & Vedic Education wiped out and united. This was a historic development in the history of Education in India.

Teaching Method :

At first there was private and group teachings. Later it developed into class room. In due course Sangharamas developed into residential college and universities. In the history of Education those universities played major role in the propagation of Buddhism, Buddhist history, Art & Culture. In those universities world famous scholars like Atisa Dipankar, Silabrada, Santarakshit were the teachers. Many valuable books were written. We still remember the glory of the universities like Nalanda, Vikramsila, Sompuri, Salban, Jagaddal, Pandit Vihar, Taxila. The supremacy of those universities were unparallel. Students from China, Myanmar, Thailand, Gandhara and all parts of ancient India came to have their education in those universities. Buddhist Education is a combination between individual and classroom education.

The main of the Budhist monks was to propagate Buddhism .Hence some Acharyas like Sariputta, Mahayaggalva, Aniruddha, Rahula, etc gave the importance to tours for educating peopleAfter completion of the education the student were encouraged to undertake long tours to gain the real and practical knowledge.

Conferences were arranged on every full moon and 1st day of month in the Budhist sanghs. The monks of different sanghs assembled and put forward their doubts freely. The attendance of every monk was compulsory in such conference.On the beginning and close of every month learned people used to assemble together. This type of assembly together was a very important part of Budhist education. The purpose of this assembly was to maintain the moral standards of all the monks, because the total education was based on morality. It was compulsory for all the monks to be present in this assemble so much so that even ill monks used to try to attend it anyhow. If due to illness it was not possible for monk to come, then assembly was held near his residence. This assembly was quite democratic and it has immense moral impact on all concerned. In order to win discussion or Shastrartha and impress the general public, it was necessary to improve the power of discussion. This was also needed to satisfy the critics and opposing groups and establish ones own cult. Thus, rules were framed for discussion. : The importance of discussion encouraged the logic in the Budhist period. The controversial matters could not be decided without logical argument. Logic was also useful in the development of the mental power and knowledge.

To established the disputes point the following evidences of eight kinds were required theory, cause, example, parallelism, contradiction, evidence, argument and induction. the important of discussion encouraged the logic in the Buddhist period. The controversial matters could not be decided without logical arguments.

The curriculum was spiritual in nature. The aim of education was to attain salvation. So the study of religious books was most important. Sutta, Vinaya and Dhamma Pitak were the main subjects prescribed for study. Budhist education aimed at purity of character. Like Vedic education it was training for moral character rather than psychological development of the students. One has to attain the stage of Bodhisattva. Mental and moral development was emphasized.

The method of teaching was mostly oral in nature.  Though the art of writing had been well developed up to Buddhist period yet, due to shortage and no availability of writing materials, verbal education was prevalent as it was in Vedic age.  The teacher used to give lessons to the novices who learnt them by heart. The teacher used to put questions on the learning the lesson by heart. Teacher gives lecture on good behaviour and required topics and students  were listen with attention    In early days teaching was a hearing system. The teachers gave lectures; students heard it and kept it in their memory. In due course it developed into dialogue and comparison method. The teachers used to teach the students on the basis of telling stories, arranging dialogue. Sometimes debate and discussions were arranged to give idea of the subject matter as well as determination of truth, subsequently writing system introduced. Afterwards students were expected to memories the same. The teacher educates the students through lectures and question answer method. Attendance of every monk was compulsory. The medium of Buddhist education was the common language of the people.

Some Buddhist monks are more interested in isolated spiritual meditation in lonely forests and caves. Only those monks were considered fit for lonely meditation who had fully renowned the worldly attraction and had spent enough time in the Sanghs has gained the efficiency for solitary meditation.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.

 

 

 

 

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D.

Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed.

Former Principal, A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

Logic (from Classical Greek λόγος (logos), originally meaning the word, or what is spoken, but coming to mean thought or reason, is most often said to be the study of arguments,

Logic is the science of exact thought. The systematic treatment or a study of methods distinguishing valid thinking from thinking which is fallacious:  The study of the proper methods of thinking and reasoning among the branches of philosophy, logic is concerned with the various forms of reasoning and arriving at genuine conclusions. It includes the system of statements and arguments. It is now divided into mathematical logic and philosophical logic. It tries to avoid the imaginary or assumptions without real logical proof. Logic languages, like Predicate Logic, promise to produce arguments which, if the premises are true, can only lead to true conclusions. Logic is slightly different than the other branches as it aims to suggest the correct ways of studying philosophy in general.

A.Induction. Reasoning from particulars to a general conclusion.

B.Deduction. Reasoning from general principle to particulars included within the scope of that principle.

C.The syllogism. A form in which to cast deductive reasoning. It is comprised of three propositions : the major premise, the minor premise, and the conclusion.

D.Experimental reasoning or problem-solving. A form of reasoning, largely inductive but using deduction as well, which begins wigh a  problem observes all the data relating to the problem, formulates hypotheses and tests them to reach a workable solution of the problem.

E.Dialectic. A method of reasoning of reasoning in which the conflict or contrast of ideas is utilized as a means of detecting the truth. In hegel’s formulation of it there are three stages: thesis, antithesis, and synthesis.

The principles of logic (the art of no contradictory identification [Rand, 1967]; the method rationality demands) were originally discovered and identified by Aristotle using a conceptual analysis of the direct perception of reality. These axioms are true because they are inherent in the nature of reality and constitute the basis for any understanding. They are epistemology primaries which are not “logically” provable since they form the foundation for all logical proofs (Peikoff, 1967, 1991; Rand, 1967). Again, the touchstone is objective reality.

Laws of logic

The basic three laws of logic are:

1) The Law of Identity: A is A (something is what it is),

2) The Law of No contradiction: Not both A and not-A (something cannot both have and not have some trait in the same sense at the same time), and

3) The Law of Excluded Middle: Either A or not-A (something is either what it is or it is something else). Despite certain claims to the contrary, any “logic” which rejects these laws is invalid as a means of trying to understand reality. Any attempt to refute these laws must, itself, use them.

Logic in Naturalism

There are two general observations to be made concerning the logic of naturalism which will help to describe the setting for its more specific discussion. The first is that, most generally considered, formal deductive logic such as was mentioned briefly in the introduction has a minor place in the methods of logic approved by naturalism.

The second observation is that is great variation in the methods of logic employed by naturalists. The logic of the earlier and more naïve naturalism is the simple material logic of induction. In modern naturalism, greater place is given to deductive logic because of the confidence placed in the independence of relations by realists.

This narrows the task of the present discussion to a consideration of simple induction as the logic of naturalism. Of course, the kind of naturalism referred to is more especially the earlier naturalism such as inspired the first steps in the development of scientific method. In its most elementary form, induction is the accumulation of accurate and detailed information by direct relation with Nature. Whereas the formal logic of education deals wit the forms by which propositions’ are dependably tied together; induction is the collection of the material on which propositions must be based if theory are to be true propositions. Syllogisms may do well in relating propositions correctly; but their value depends almost entirely upon the material truth of their propositions. Does the major premise describe a fact about a class of individuals in Nature. And does the minor premise assert what is fact concerning one individual in that class? One the answer to these questions the whole value of the syllogism rests. How could men ever have come to the conclusion. “All men are mortal” without having observed a great number of people and having recognized that their lives were all terminated by death? And to do this is to follow inductive method.

Simple induction involve careful observation of Nature, accurate description of what is observed, and caution in formulating generalizations. The way in which to get acquainted with Nature as it actually is, is to go directly to Nature and see what is there. This means painstaking observation in which there is a rigorous piety ruing out everything but smile recognition of facts. In order to accumulate facts for later use in large messes, or in groups or classes, or for use by other than those making the direct observations, it is necessary to record what is observed, and to do it carefully and accurately, representing the facts only as they are. True enough one of the chief values of observing and collecting facts is the discovery of generalizations about Nature; but in this stage of induction there must be much caution. It is so easy for wishful thinking or preconceived ideas to influence the handling of the facts. Francis Bacon, the father of inductive method, even advised caution about hypotheses; he regarded them as “anticipations of Nature”. Here too, in forming conclusions, as well as in observing the facts and recording them, there must be rigorous natural piety. There must be careful and patient accumulation of the facts until the conclusion almost seems to suggest itself as the only generalization to which the facts could possibly point.

The naturalist rejected the role that intellect or reason plays in the knowing process and put forth the claim that the only valid form of knowledge is that derived from experience. For the early naturalists “ experience “ chiefly meant that mode of acquiring knowledge based on direct contact  of the organism with the physical world through the senses. The more sophisticated naturalists included the refined modes of knowing used by the empirical sciences. Both however, imply a denial of reason as a source of knowledge. In practice, both type of experience are evident in naturalistic educational theory.

Naturalists highlight the value of scientific knowledge the scientific knowledge acquiring through specific observation, accumulation and generalization. They also lay emphasis on the empirical and experimental knowledge. Naturalists also lay stress on sensory training as senses are the gateways to learning. Naturalism does not necessarily claim that phenomena or hypotheses commonly labelled as supernatural do not exist or are wrong, but insists that all phenomena and hypotheses can be studied by the same methods and therefore anything considered supernatural is either nonexistent or not inherently different from natural phenomena or hypotheses.

Logic in Idealism

The idealist take a rationalistic approach to the knotty problems of knowledge and truth and relies heavily on deductive logic (the process of reasoning from the general to the more specific) Although some idealist thinkers have carefully denied reliance on empirical or sense data, such data usually serve as the basis for the premises of deductive logic.

As to knowledge, idealism holds that knowledge is man thinking the thoughts and purposes of this eternal and spiritual reality as they are embodied in our world of fact.

The idealist attempts to find in the universe general principles which can be given the status of universal truths. In order to do this, it is necessary for the idealist to turn inward; to see, as it were, the ocean in a drop of water and the universe in a grain of sand. Most idealists will accept that notion that man’s being and absolute mind are qualitatively the same, but while we have all the attributes of the Absolute we are like the drop of water and the sea. Just as the drop of water is not the whole ocean, man does reflect, albeit dimly, the Absolute, we can look inward to see the true nature of reality. Idealists believe that all knowledge is independent of sense experience. The act of knowing takes place within the mind. The mind is active and contains innate capacities for organizing and synthesizing the data derived through sensations. Man can know intuitively; that is to say, he can apprehend immediately some truth without utilizing any of his senses. Man can also know truth through the acts of reason by which an individual examines the logical consistency of his ideas. Some Idealists believe that all knowledge is a matter of recall. Plato was one who held this notion. He based this conclusion upon the assumption that the spirit of man is eternal. Whatever he knows is already contained within his spirit. Existence depends upon mind. Every stimulus received by the mind is derived ultimately from God. God is the Infinite Spirit.

Logic of Realism

It can be seen that for realism there is logic of investigation as well as a logic of reasoning. The one functions largely at the level of sense perception, the other more especially at the conceptual level. Both are important in any effective adjustment to the real world and in any adequate control of our experience.

Montague suggests still other ‘ways of knowing’ which have their contribution to make to the material of logic-

(1)The accepting of authoritative statements of other people, he says ‘ must always remain the great and primary source of our information about other man’s thoughts and about the past

’(2)Intuition, of the mystical sort, ay also be a source of truth for us, but we should always be careful to put such knowledge to the test of noninituitative methods before accepting it

.(3) Particularly in the realm of practical or ethical matters, the pragmatic test, ‘how effective it is in practice’ may be a valid source of truth

(4) And even scepticism also has its value in truth-seeking; it may not yield any positive truth for us but it can save us from cockiness and smugness, and help us to be tolerant and open minded.

Bertrand Russell, who came to philosophy by way of mathematics, has always held that particular science in high repute as an instrument of truth. As is the case with many realists. He feels that traditional logic needs to be supplemented by the science of mathematics because of the inaccuracy and vagueness both of words and grammer. He thinks that if logical relations are to be stated accurately .they must be represented by mathematical symbols and equations, words are too bungle some.

Logic in Pragmatism

Logic in Pragmatism is regarded as autonomous. This characterization can be elaborated by comparing the pragmatic pattern in logic to induction and deduction. Both induction and deduction, it may be said, superimpose a pattern upon any given situation in which thinking is involved. If deduction is followed, the pattern of the syllogism is brought in from the outside, as it were, and applied to the present situation in which a problem of thought is to be worked out. Similarly, if induction is followed, the pattern of extended observation of particulars and building conclusions which apply to all of these particulars is imported into the situation and applied somewhat arbitrarily. Pragmatist argue that each indeterminate situation is more unique than to permit this wholesale importing of patterns from outside the situation. The contention is that the pattern of thought must arise from within the situation because they cannot be peculiarly effective in that situation if they are ready-made forms which are imposed from the outside.

The pragmatic pattern of logic is closely related to the biological realm. This is to say that the indeterminate situations in which thought goes on are vital situations intimately tied up with th onward flow of the life processes of organisms. Consequently there is more than a coincidental connection between the pattern of inquiry and the struggling of animal existence. In indeterminate situations and in the problem-solution movement, thought and life constitute one continuous process. They are not distinct levels of existence; and they do not have different pattern of organization. This is the logical aspect to which man and Nature are continuous.

The pattern of logic is closely related to the culture. This is a companion to the characterization just given. For pragmatists, logic is as closely tied with the culture as with the processes of animal existence. Indeterminate situations have their sociological context as well as their biological;. Individual men do not act and think in isolation from the society of which they are a part. Of necessity they do their inquiring with in a context of meanings which are supplied by the social group. Consequently, language, as a system of symbols for meanings, together with arts, institutions, traditions, and customary beliefs, as media of communication, are all contributors to each indeterminate situation in which thought goes on.

Indeterminate situations may be either individual or social, immediately circumscribed by time or broadly inclusive. This pragmatic pattern of logic is a necessary addition to the one just stated. It may be easier to outline the pattern of logic in individual terms and in relation to a strictly immediate and present situation. But this does not do justice to it; for individual thought is never isolated from society and culture in any important sense, and although there are limited immediate situations, which are faced both individually and socially, in point of time, there are also situations which stretch out over longer periods.

Logic in Existentialism

The existentialist approach  to knowledge is known as the phenomenological method. The atheistic existentialists inherited this method from Husserl. It was adapted further byHeidegger and Sartre to suit their philosophy of “will and action,” especially as it concerns the individual… The phenomenological method consists in the expression of the experiences of consciousness through the media of ordinary language

Existentialists have given little attention to inductive reasoning. Science, they believe, has been one of the major dehumanizing forces in the modern world. It is not that existentialists want to put an abrupt halt to all scientific work. Rather, they argue, the philosopher should not concern himself with such matters. It should be quite evident from the section above that ‘ philosophizing “ is performed on such topics as the nature and importance of freedom, man’s mental states, decisions, and action. The nature of scientific method, the nature of the physical universe, and similar topics are conspicuously absent from their philosophical treatises.

The existentialist approach to knowledge is known as phenomenological method. The first step of this method consists in an intuitive grasp of one’s conscious experiences with objects, people, and events. The second step in this method consists in the expression of the experiences of consciousness through the media of ordinary language, the fine arts, and when need be, through the language of technical philosophy.

Clearly existentialism is not so concerned as are other modes of thinking with kind of knowledge found in the empirical sciences..Such knowledge is not concerned with choices of values, modes of living, and acting. Scientific knowledge is objective; it must be removed from the realm of value-judgement; it becomes meaningful only when all personal, subjective elements are removed.

In opposition to this cold impersonal approach to knowledge, the existentialist argues that true knowledge is “choosing, actions, living, and dying.” Let the scientist continue his pursuit of cold, lifeless fact and theory, but let the philosopher concern himself with the aspects of world which involve personal, subjective experience. Sartre considers this approach as true humanism.

 

 

 

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D.

Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed.

Former Principal,A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

Wood‘s Dispatch is a very important educational document and holds a unique place in the history of Indian education. It placed the responsibility of education of the Indian people fully on the Company and stated quite explicitly that it must never be neglected. The Despatch gave new direction to education in India

HISTORICAL EVENTS LEADING TO THE DESPATCH

The East India Company had to renew its Charter after every twenty years. Accordingly while renewing the Charter in 1833 the British Parliament increased the sum of money to one million yearly from the Rs-100000 in 1813 to be sent on education in India. When the time for renewal came in 1853, education in India had come to suffer numerous problems. The directors of the company decided to lay down a definite policy for education in India. Therefore, it became necessary to make a comprehensive survey of the entire field of education. As such, a Selection Committee of the British Parliament was set up in order to institute an inquiry into the measures for their reforms. The Committee studied the issue thoroughly and reported that the question of the Indian education should not be ignored and its development will not be in any case harmful to the British Empire. The suggestions of the Committee were favorably considered by the Board of Directors. Sir Charles Wood was the president of the Board of Control. it is said that the Dispatch was written by the famous thinker John Stuart Mill, a clerk of the company at that time

Before renewing the Charter in 1853, the British Parliament constitutes a Selection Committee to inquiry into the Progress of education in India and suggests reform. The suggestions of the Committee were issued as a Charter of Education on July 19, 1854. Charles Wood was the president of the Board of Control. So this is known as Wood’s Dispatch of 1854

The East India Company had to renew its Charter after every twenty years. Before renewing the Charter in 1853, the British Parliament constitutes a Selection Committee to inquiry into the Progress of education in India and suggests reform. The suggestions of the Committee were issued as a Charter of Education on July 19, 1854 Charles Wood was the president of the Board of Control. So this is known as Wood’s Dispatch of 1854        Wood’s Education Dispatch formed the basis of the education policy of EAST INDIA COMPANY’s government in India since 1854. Drafted probably at the instance of Sir Charles Wood, President of the BOARD OF CONTROL, it was forwarded to the Government of India as Dispatch No 49 of 19 July 1854 for ‘creating a properly articulated system of education, from the primary school to the University’. The renewal of the Company’s Charter in 1853 provided the occasion for the dispatch. As usual, a Select Committee of the House of Commons held a very thorough inquiry into educational situation in India. Often described as the ‘Magna Carta of modern education in India’, the dispatch was one of the wisest state papers prepared by the COURT OF DIRECTORS. It was indeed a landmark in the history of education in modern India and presented a comprehensive plan for the later development of the educational system in the subcontinent.

Aims and Objectives of Educational Policy:

Wood‘s Dispatch is a long document of 100 paragraphs and deals with the various aspects of great educational importance.

The Dispatch first throws light on the  aims and objectives of educational policy of the Company in India. It gave highest priority to the responsibility of Indian Education and other responsibilities of the Company. The Dispatch had the following objectives in view:

a)      To impart Western knowledge and information about the western culture to the Indians

b)       To make people of India familiar with the works of European authors

c) To educate the natives of India so that a class of public servants could be created

d) To promote intellectual development and also raise the moral character of the young generation

e) To develop practical and vocational skills of the Indians people so that more and more articles could be produced and also to create a good market for consumption of those goods

Recommendations of the Wood’s Dispatch

Department of Education:

The Wood‘s Dispatch, for the first time, recommended the  creation of a Department of Public Instruction (D.P.I.) in each of the five provinces of Bengal, Bombay, Madras, the Punjab and the North Western provinces. The head of the Department would be called the Director and he was to be assisted by a number of inspectors. The D.P.I. had to submit an annual report to the government about the educational progress in his province.

Expansion of Mass Education: : The Dispatch admitted that mass education has been totally neglected. Therefore, the Dispatch directed that useful and practical knowledge should be conveyed to masses. To achieve this purpose, the Dispatch recommended the establishment of increased number of High Schools, Middle Schools and Primary Schools. The indigenous primary schools were regarded as the foundation upon which the superstructure of education could be constructed.. The downward filtration Theory as proposed earlier was discarded and in its place importance to primary education was given. Elementary education was considered to be the foundation of the education system

.

Establishment of Universities: – - The Dispatch recommended the establishment of universities in the three Presidency towns of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. The universities were to be modeled after the London University and these were to have a senate comprising of a Chancellor, a Vice-Chancellor, and fellows who were nominated by the Government. The Universities would confer degrees to the successful candidates after passing the examinations, (of Science or Arts Streams) conducted by the Senate. The universities were to organize departments not only of English but also of Arabic, Sanskrit and Persian, as well as law and civil engineering.

 

Training of Teachers: -

Wood‘s Dispatch recommended the establishment of teacher training schools in each of the provinces. There should be training schools for teachers of engineering, medicine and law. The qualified teachers should be given better pay scales. The Dispatch further emphasized on the provision of scholarships to the teachers during their training period.

Professional Education: -

Wood‘s Dispatch encouraged professional education. It recommended the establishment of medical, engineering law and other institutes of professional education. The Dispatch  stated that in order to develop vocational efficiency of people and to make people realize that the British rule was progressive. Another reason for the encouragement of vocational education was to control the problem of unemployment.

Introduction of network of Graded Schools all over India: -

The Dispatch recommended that there should be graded schools all over the country as follows:

Universities

Colleges

High Schools

Middle Schools

Primary Schools

 

Wood‘s Dispatch recommended the establishment of a network of graded schools all over the country. At one end were the universities and the colleges, then the high schools followed by the middle schools and the bottom of the middle schools and at the bottom of the network were the primary schools, both government and indigenous. Both the Anglo-vernacular and vernacular schools were to be included in the same class. This system was recommended in order to enable an individual to receive higher education after completing the different levels of schools education

Grant  in-aid system: – The Wood’s Dispatch recommended the sanction of a grant-in-aid system in the Indian educational system. To educate the large number of people of India was a difficult task and so the grant-in-aid system was adopted by the government. Grants were given to those schools and colleges which satisfied the conditions given below :-

a) The schools must provide secular education.

b) The school management should run the school well.

c) The school should agree to state inspection from time to time.

d) The schools should follow any rule prescribed by the government for the regulation of the grant.

e) The school must charge fees from the students.

Grants were given to the schools for increasing the salaries teachers, construction of school buildings, granting scholarships to students, improving conditions of literates, opening of science department etc.

Teaching of Language: – The Dispatch emphasized the importance of Oriental languages. Mr. Wood had recognized the usefulness of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian and recommended them as subjects of study in regular institutions. Like Macaulay, he also recognized the usefulness of western knowledge for Indians. The Wood’s Dispatch gave importance to teaching of English, but at the same time, it also stressed on the teaching of Indian languages. The Dispatch realized that any acquaintance of European knowledge could be communicated to the common people and that could be conveyed to them only through learning their own mother tongue. Therefore the Dispatch clearly stated that Indian languages as well as English should be used as media of instruction.

Education of Women: -: In Wood’s Dispatch, much emphasis was given upon women education. The Dispatch recommended that the education ladder would be incomplete without women education. It appreciated the work of enlightened Indians engaged in this sacred job The Dispatch recommended that the government should always support education for women. The wood’s Dispatch stated, “The importance of female education in India cannot be over rated; and we have observed with pleasure the evidence which is now afforded of an increased desire on the part of many of the natives of India to give a good education to their daughters. By this means a far greater proportional impulse is imparted to the educational and moral tone of the people than by the education of men”. The Despatch also encouraged the private enterprises to promote women education. The schools for girls were to be included among those to which grants-in-aid would be given.

Medium of instruction: The Dispatch recommended that owing to the shortage of books in Indian languages, the medium of instruction should be English. But English should be needed for those people who have proper knowledge and taste for English and are able to understand European knowledge through this language. For other Indian languages should be used.

Muslim Education: Concerning Muslim Education, Mr. Wood found that Muslims in this country were educationally backward and hence they should be encouraged to gain more education and efforts should be made in this direction.

Vocational Education: The Dispatch pointed out the need of starting vocational schools and colleges for imparting instructions in different vocations. Vocational education may be considered as a necessity in order to prepare children for future life.

Education for Employment: The Dispatch recommended that academically and highly qualified person should be preferred more than the others for Government services.

Policy of religious neutrality: The Dispatch directed the company to follow a policy of religious neutrality. No man’s religion was to stand in the way of securing an appointment under the Government. Moreover no religious instruction should be imparted in educational institutions. They were to be exclusively secular.

Merits of Wood’s Dispatch:

Educational Policy: Through Wood’s Dispatch, British Parliament, for the first time made an attempt to decide the educational policy of India and made it constitutional. Before this, there was no policy of education for Indians. Through this Dispatch they decided for the first time their policy about education system in India. Wood‘s Dispatch started a new era in Indian education system by clearly defining objectives of education. It made the Government realize the importance of education for the people and presented a comprehensive scheme of education embracing primary, secondary and higher education.

Grant-in-aid system: By the grant-in-aid system many schools were benefited, the quality of education improved, and private organisations were encouraged to open new schools.

Educational Responsibility: This Dispatch brought about a revolutionary change in the educational policy of the British Government. It declared that Indian education was the duty and responsibility of the British government. The Dispatch recommended scholarship for the poor and deserving students.

Importance of Indian literature and culture: The Dispatch recognized the importance and utility of Indian literature, culture and knowledge. It recommended the inclusion of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian language and literature in the curriculum along with the western knowledge.

Indian languages as medium of instruction: Charles Wood also recognized Indian languages as the medium of instruction along with English. Wood‘s Dispatch encouraged Language teaching. As a result, regional languages and classical languages were taught in the schools.

Department of Public Instruction: It recommended the creation of a separate Department of Public Instruction in five provinces and appointment of a Director to head the Department To run properly the education schemes of India, the Dispatch suggested for setting up Department of Public Instruction in each province with the Director of Public Instruction, Deputy Directors etc. Thus it prepared an administrative set up for education.

Establishment of Universities: The Dispatch encouraged higher education by recommending the establishment of universities in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras and emphasized on the necessity of vocational education.  Thus education got a good stride.

Expansion of Mass Education: The principle of Downward Filtration Theory was discarded by the Wood‘s Dispatch and it encouraged the promotion of mass education. It recommended the establishment of indigenous schools. By giving a universal character to education, the Dispatch abolished the filtration theory. Thus education was not confined to higher class of people alone, instead its doors was opened for all.

Solution of unemployment: Wood’s Dispatch also paid attention to solve the problem of unemployment by encouraging vocational education. Arrangements for vocational education were made. Thus the public got an opportunity for becoming self-dependent.

Training of teachers: The Dispatch recommended the training of teachers The Despatch recommended the importance of establishing teacher-training institutes to improve the quality of teachers and their conditions of salaries.

Responsibility of women education: The Dispatch revived and recognized the need of development of women education as the duty and responsibility.

Demerits of Wood’s Dispatch

Wood‘s Dispatch could not remove the imbalance in Indian education system. The rich people sent their children to English medium schools, and the government gradually stopped financial aid to the indigenous schools and so the existence of these schools became jeopardized. It failed to develop character initiative and leadership among students.

The Dispatch, in reality promoted Western literature and knowledge and government offices showed preferences for persons educated in English. The education planning and management schemes remained only in black and white.

The system of grant-in-aid did not operate in proper sense, i.e., there was always the paucity of funds, the irregularity of their release and biased attitude towards the privately managed schools.

It neglected general education. Only the privileged class received education.

Indigenous schools remained neglected. Priority was given to people educated on English pattern with regard to government posts. M. R. Paranjpe stated that, ―the authors did not aim at education for leadership, education for the industrial regeneration of India, education for the defense of the motherland, in short, education required by the people of a self- governing nation.

Departments of Education were opened in the five provinces but they could not promote the real interest of education

The Dispatch had said that the government should follow a policy of secularism, but regarding the Christian missionaries the Dispatch showed a soft corner

The Wood‘s Dispatch had a partial attitude towards the Christian missionaries; Christian religious books were easily made available to the students, in the libraries.

The three universities were modeled on the London University and the Government‘s policy of nominating members to the senate was biased. Therefore higher education was not related to Indian conditions

The Dispatch succeeded in only producing a class of clerks and accountants.

In conclusion it has been observed that however, it must be noted that in spite of all the limitations, the Wood’s Dispatch was recognized as the Magna Carta of Indian Education.’ The objective of the Dispatch was very sincere but the government could not implement the various suggestions and recommendations. The main provisions of the document were of great historical importance. It provided a boost to secondary education and to some extent to primary education also. It was however observed that some of the most important recommendations of the Dispatch were not carried out for a long time and some were given effect in a distorted form. During the first thirty years after the Dispatch, government institutions gradually increased and beside the Christian Missionaries other private enterprise were not encouraged.

Consisting of a hundred paragraphs the document dealt with several issues of great educational importance. Accepting ‘the improvement and far wider extension of education both English and vernacular’ as the ‘sacred duty’ of the Government of India the dispatch recommend the following measures for the realization of the desired aims:

(1) The establishment of a separate department of education for its administration;

(2) The foundation of universities at the three Presidency towns;

(3) The establishment of institutions for training of teachers for all types of schools;

(4) The maintenance of the existing government colleges and high schools and establishment of new ones if and when necessary;

(5) The establishment of new middle schools;

(6) Greater attention to vernacular schools, indigenous and others, for expansion of elementary education, and

(7) The introduction of a system of grants-in aid to help support a rising number of privately managed educational institutions.

The dispatch drew special attention of the government ‘to the importance of placing the means of acquiring useful and practical knowledge within reach of the great mass of the people’. English was to be the medium of instruction in the higher branches, and the vernacular in the lower. English was to be taught wherever there was a demand for it, but it was not to be substituted for the vernacular. The system of grants-in-aid was to be based on the principle of perfect religious neutrality. A properly graded system of scholarships was to be introduced and female education was to receive the frank and cordial support of the government.

The dispatch concluded with the comment that in course of time, government institutions, especially those of the higher order, might safely be closed, or transferred to the management of local bodies under the control of, and aided by, the state. On the basis of these recommendations the new system of education in India gradually evolved. No doubt, with the progress of time the system underwent changes, but the original blue-print was framed by the system underwent changes, but the original blue-print was framed by the Dispatch of 1854.