Dr. V.K. Maheshwari, Ph.D

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D.

Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed.

Former Principal, A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

Descartes was born on 31 March 1596 in La Haye, in the Touraine region of France. His father Joachim, a lawyer. In 1606, at the age of 8, René attended  the Jesuit college of Henri IV in La Flèche, where he studied literature, grammar, science, and mathematics.  In 1614, he left La Flèche to study civil and cannon Law at Poitiers.  In  1616, he received his baccalaureate and licentiate degrees in Law.  Aside from his Law degrees, Descartes also spent time studying philosophy, theology, and medicine.

Descartes was a “jack of all trades”, making major contributions to the areas of anatomy, cognitive science, optics, mathematics and philosophy. Descartes, like Bacon, resolutely sets his face against the old authorities and, like him, emphasizes the practical character  of all philosophy. Philosophy is a perfect knowledge of all that man can know, as well for the conduct of his life as for the preservation of his health and the discovery of all the arts.”  René Descartes is often credited with being the “Father of Modern Philosophy.” This title is justified due both to his break with the traditional Scholastic-Aristotelian philosophy prevalent at his time and to his development and promotion of the new, mechanistic sciences. His fundamental break with Scholastic philosophy was twofold. René Descartes, French mathematician, scientist, and philosopher. Because he was one of the first to abandon scholastic Aristotelianism, because he formulated the first modern version of mind-body dualism, from which stems the mind-body problem, and because he promoted the development of a new science grounded in observation and experiment, he has been called the father of modern philosophy. Applying an original system of methodical doubt, he dismissed apparent knowledge derived from authority, the senses, and reason and erected new epistemic foundations on the basis of the intuition that, when he is thinking, he exists; this he expressed in the dictum “I think, therefore I am” (best known in its Latin formulation, “Cogito, ergo sum,” though originally written in French, “Je pense, donc je suis”). He developed a metaphysical dualism that distinguishes radically between mind, the essence of which is thinking, andmatter, the essence of which is extension in three dimensions. Descartes’s metaphysics is rationalist, based on the postulation of innate ideas of mind, matter, and God, but his physics and physiology, based on sensory experience, are mechanistic and empiricist.,

Descartes implying that he provided the seed for a new philosophy that broke away from the old in important ways. This “old” philosophy is Aristotle’s as it was appropriated and interpreted throughout the later medieval period. In fact, Aristotelianism was so entrenched in the intellectual institutions of Descartes’ time that commentators argued that evidence for its the truth could be found in the Bible. Accordingly, if someone were to try to refute some main Aristotelian tenet, then he could be accused of holding a position contrary to the word of God and be punished. However, by Descartes’ time, many had come out in some way against one Scholastic-Aristotelian thesis or other. So, when Descartes argued for the implementation of his modern system of philosophy, breaks with the Scholastic tradition were not unprecedented. With the Greek thinkers of the classical period and many of the great philosophers who came after him, Descartes emphasizes the practical, ethical significance of philosophy : ” The study of philosophy is more imperatively requisite for the regulation of our manners and for conducting us through life than is the use ef our eyes for directing our steps.”

In the preface to the French edition of the Principles of Philosophy, Descartes uses a tree as a metaphor for his holistic view of philosophy. “The roots are metaphysics, the trunk is physics, and the branches emerging from the trunk are all the other sciences, which may be reduced to three principal ones, namely medicine, mechanics and morals” (AT IXB 14: CSM I 186) .Metaphysics constitutes the roots securing the rest of the tree. For it is in Descartes’ metaphysics where an absolutely certain and secure epistemological foundation is discovered. This, in turn, grounds knowledge of the geometrical properties of bodies, which is the basis for his physics. Second, physics constitutes the trunk of the tree, which grows up directly from the roots and provides the basis for the rest of the sciences. Third, the sciences of medicine, mechanics and morals grow out of the trunk of physics, which implies that these other sciences are just applications of his mechanistic science to particular subject areas. Finally, the fruits of the philosophy tree are mainly found on these three branches, which are the sciences most useful and beneficial to humankind. However, an endeavor this grand cannot be conducted haphazardly but should be carried out in an orderly and systematic way. Hence, before even attempting to plant this tree, Descartes must first figure out a method for doing so. First, Descartes thought that the Scholastics’ method was prone to doubt given their reliance on sensation as the source for all knowledge. Second, he wanted to replace their final causal model of scientific explanation with the more modern, mechanistic mode. The first part of true philosophy, according to Descartes, is metaphysics, In metaphysics, he provided arguments for the existence of God, to show that the essence of matter is extension, and that the essence of mind is thought. The metaphysical objects of investigation included the existence and nature of God and the soul (1:144, 182).   Metaphysics contains the principles of knowledge, such as the definition of the principal attributes of God, Classification the immateriality of the soul, and of all the clear Sciences and  simple notions that are in us. The second is physics, in which, after finding the true principles of material things, we examine, in general, how the whole universe has been framed; then, in particular, the nature of the earth and of all the bodies most generally found upon it, as air, water, fire, the loadstone and other minerals ; next the nature of plants, animals, and, above all, man, in order hereafter to be able to discover the other sciences that are useful to us. Thus, all philosophy is like a tree, of which metaphysics is the root, physics the trunk, and all the other sciences the branches that grow out of this trunk, which are reduced to three principal, namely, medicine, mechanics, and ethics. The science of morals is the highest and most perfect, which, presupposing an entire knowledge of the other sciences, is the last degree of wisdom.

Physics

Descartes devised a non-atomistic, mechanistic physics in which all physical phenomena were to be explain by the configuration and motion of a body’s miniscule parts. Descartes, thought human effort is better directed toward the discovery of the mechanistic causes of things given the uselessness of final causal explanations and how it is vain to seek God’s purposes. Furthermore, Descartes maintained that the geometric method should also be applied to physics so that results are deduced from the clear and distinct perceptions of the geometrical or quantifiable properties found in bodies, that is, size, shape, motion, determination (or direction), quantity, and so forth.

Since the matter constituting the physical universe and its divisibility were previously discussed, a brief explanation of the circular motion of bodies and the preservation of motion is in order. The first thesis is derived from God’s immutability and implies that no quantity of motion is ever added to or subtracted from the universe, but rather quantities of motion are merely passed from one body to another. God’s immutability is also used to support the first law of motion, which is that each and everything, in so far as it can, always continues in the same state; and thus what is once in motion always continues in motion. This principle indicates that something will remain in a given state as long as it is not being affected by some external cause. So a body moving at a certain speed will continue to move at that speed indefinitely unless something comes along to change it. The second thesis about the circular motion of bodies is discussed at Principles, part II, section 33. This claim is based on the earlier thesis that the physical universe is a plenum of contiguous bodies. On this account, one moving body must collide with and replace another body, which, in turn, is set in motion and collides with another body, replacing it and so on. But, at the end of this series of collisions and replacements, the last body moved must then collide with and replace the first body in the sequence.

Descartes’ second law of motion is that “all motion is in itself rectilinear; and hence any body moving in a circle always tends to move away from the center of the circle which it describes” This is justified by God’s immutability and simplicity in that he will preserve a quantity of motion in the exact form in which it is occurring until some created things comes along to change it. The principle expressed here is that any body considered all by itself tends to move in a straight line unless it collides with another body, which deflects it.

The third general law of motion, in turn, governs the collision and deflection of bodies in motion. This third law is that “if a body collides with another body that is stronger than itself, it loses none of its motion; but if it collides with a weaker body, it loses a quantity of motion”). This law expresses the principle that if a body’s movement in a straight line is less resistant than a stronger body with which it collides, then it won’t lose any of its motion but its direction will be changed. But if the body collides with a weaker body, then the first body loses a quantity of motion equal to that given in the second.

Method

Unlike the English empiricist, how- ever, he takes mathematics as the model of his philosophical method: study logic, he tells us, and practise its rules by studying mathematics. He offers not merely a program of human knowledge, but seeks to construct a system of thought that may possess the certainty of mathematics Descartes sought to avoid these difficulties through the clarity and absolute certainty of geometrical-style demonstration. In geometry, theorems are deduced from a set of self-evident axioms and universally agreed upon definitions. Accordingly, direct apprehension of clear, simple and indubitable truths (or axioms) by intuition and deductions from those truths can lead to new and indubitable knowledge. Descartes found this promising for several reasons. First, the ideas of geometry are clear and distinct, and therefore they are easily understood unlike the confused and obscure ideas of sensation. Second, the propositions constituting geometrical demonstrations are not probabilistic conjectures but are absolutely certain so as to be immune from doubt. This has the additional advantage that any proposition derived from some one or combination of these absolutely certain truths will itself be absolutely certain. Hence, geometry’s rules of inference preserve absolutely certain truth from simple, indubitable and intuitively grasped axioms to their deductive consequences unlike the probable syllogisms of the Scholastics.

Descartes claimed early on to possess a special method, which was variously exhibited in mathematics, natural philosophy, and metaphysics, and which, in the latter part of his life, included, or was supplemented by, a method of doubt.

Descartes was known among the learned in his day as the best of the French mathematicians, as the developer of a new physics, and as the proposer of a new metaphysics. In the years following his death, his natural philosophy was widely taught and discussed. In the eighteenth century aspects of his science remained influential, especially his physiology, and he was remembered for his failed metaphysics and his method of doubt. In the nineteenth century he was revered for his mechanistic physiology and theory that animal bodies are machines (that is, are constituted by material mechanisms, governed by the laws of matter alone). The twentieth century variously celebrated his famous “cogito” starting point, reviled the sense data that some alleged to be the legacy of his skeptical starting point, and looked to him as a model of the culturally engaged philosopher. He has been seen, at various times, as a hero and as a villain; as a brilliant theorist who set new directions in thought, and as the harbinger of a cold, rationalistic, and calculative conception of human beings.

Descartes invented analytic geometry, a method of solving geometric problems algebraically and algebraic problems geometrically. He also devised a universal method of deductive reasoning, based on mathematics, that is applicable to all the sciences. This method, which he later formulated in Discourse on Method (1637) and Rules for the Direction of the Mind  consists of four rules: (1) accept nothing as true that is not self-evident, (2) divide problems into their simplest parts, (3) solve problems by proceeding from simple to complex, and (4) recheck the reasoning. These rules are a direct application of mathematical procedures. In addition, Descartes insisted that all key notions and the limits of each problem must be clearly defined. In the Rules, he sought to generalize the methods of mathematics so as to provide a route to clear knowledge of everything that human beings can know. His methodological advice included a suggestion that is familiar to every student of elementary geometry: break your work up into small steps that you can understand completely and about which you have utter certainty, and check your work often. But he also had advice for the ambitious seeker of truth, concerning where to start and how to work up to greater things. Thus, Rule 10 reads: “In order to acquire discernment we should exercise our intelligence by investigating what others have already discovered, and methodically survey even the most insignificant products of human skill, especially those which display order” . As examples of “simple” arts “in which order prevails,” he offered carpet-making and embroidery, and also number-games and arithmetic games. He went on to discuss the roles of the “cognitive faculties” in acquiring knowledge, which include the intellect, imagination, sense perception, and memory. These faculties allow the seeker of knowledge to combine simple truths in order to solve more complex problems, such as the solution to problems in optics (10:394), or the discovery of how a magnet works (10:427).

By the end of 1628 Descartes had abandoned work on the Rules, having completed about half of the projected treatise.

Cogito, ergo sum

In the Second Meditation, Descartes tries to establish absolute certainty in his famous reasoning: Cogito, ergo sum or “I think, therefore I am.” These Meditations are conducted from the first person perspective, from Descartes.’ However, he expects his reader to meditate along with him to see how his conclusions were reached. This is especially important in the Second Meditation where the intuitively grasped truth of “I exist” occurs. So the discussion here of this truth will take place from the first person or “I” perspective. All sensory beliefs had been found doubtful in the previous meditation, and therefore all such beliefs are now considered false. This includes the belief that I have a body endowed with sense organs. But does the supposed falsehood of this belief mean that I do not exist? No, for if I convinced myself that my beliefs are false, then surely there must be an “I” that was convinced. Moreover, even if I am being deceived by an evil demon, I must exist in order to be deceived at all. So “I must finally conclude that the proposition, ‘I am,’ ‘I exist,’ is necessarily true whenever it is put forward by me or conceived in my mind” (AT VII 25: CSM II 16-17). This just means that the mere fact that I am thinking, regardless of whether or not what I am thinking is true or false, implies that there must be something engaged in that activity, namely an “I.” Hence, “I exist” is an indubitable and, therefore, absolutely certain belief that serves as an axiom from which other, absolutely certain truths can be deduced.

But one thing is certain, and that is that I doubt, or think; of that there can be no doubt. And it is a contradiction to conceive that that which thinks does not exist at the very time when it thinks. Descartes does not here infer from an empirical psychical fact: I think, hence I am; but reasons logically that doubt implies a doubter, thinking a thinker, a thinking thing (res cogitans) or spiritual substance; thus reaching what seems to him a rational, self-evident proposition. To doubt means to think, to think means to be ; cogito, ergo sum, I think, therefore I am. ” It is the first and most certain knowledge that occurs to one who philosophizes in an orderly manner.” Here is the principle we have been seeking, a certain, self-evident starting- point for our metaphysics.

Nature and Body

In his conception of external nature, he is in agreement with the great natural scientists of the new era : everything in nature, even physiological processes and emotions, must be explained mechanically, without the aid of forms or essences. At the same time, he accepts the fundamental principles of the time-honored idealistic or spiritualistic philosophy and attempts to adapt them to the demands of the new science: his problem is to reconcile mechanism and the notions of God, soul, and freedom.

All the processes of the external world are modifications or modes of extension ; extension may be divided without end, the parts may be united and separated, whence arise different forms of matter. All variation of matter, or diversity of form, depends on motion. Motion is the action by which a body passes from one place to another. It is a mode of the movable thing, not a substance. All occurrence is transference of motion from one part of space to another. ” Motion is the transporting of one part of matter or of one body from the vicinity of those bodies that are in immediate contact with it, or which we regard at rest, to the vicinity of other bodies.” The physical world is explained in terms of mechanics. There is no action in the distance, all occurrences are due to pressure and impact. Hence, there must be a universal ether to account for the facts of astronomy.

Body conceived as mere extension is passive and cannot move itself; we must, therefore, have recourse to God as the first cause of motion in the world. ” God originally created matter along with motion and rest, and now by his concourse alone preserves in the whole the same amount of motion that he then placed in it.” This view of the prime mover was common in the time of Descartes and after. Galileo and Newton both accepted it : it is the old Aristotelian conception.) 1 To hinder divine interference with the world, however, which would mean the   abandonment of the mechanical theory and a relapse into scholasticism, our philosopher holds that God has given the world a  certain amount of motion : motion is constant. We have here  the theory of the conservation of energy in germ. Bodies can not produce motion of themselves or stop it ; consequently, they can neither increase nor decrease it, and hence the quantity of motion and rest must remain the same.

What particularly attracted Descartes in this extreme dualism was that it left nature free for the mechanical explanations of natural science. Mind is eliminated from nature and given an independent territory of its own. Physics is allowed to go its own way ; all purposes or final causes are banished from it. A division is made between mind and body similar to the division made between theology and philosophy in scholastic days. This teaching Descartes applies to the entire organic world, even to the human body. The human body is, like the animal body, a machine. The moving principle in it is the heat in the heart; the organs of motion are the muscles; the organs of sensation, the nerves. Animal spirits are distilled in the blood in the heart and rise through the arteries into the brain, and thence into the muscles and nerves. All the functions of the body follow naturally, in this machine, from the arrangement of the organs, as necessarily as the movements of a watch or other automaton follow from its pendulum and wheels. It is not necessary to conceive in it any plant or sensitive soul or any other principle of vital motion than blood and the animal spirits. Descartes repudiates the vitalism of Aristotle and the schoolmen, and offers a thoroughgoing mechanical theory of organic nature.

If these two substances exclude one another, it would follow that there can be no interaction between them: mind cannot cause changes in the body, and body cannot cause changes in the mind. Descartes, however, does not draw the consequences of his premises. There are certain facts which point to an intimate union between body and mind in man : appetites of hunger and thirst ; emotions and passions of mind which are not exclusively mental affections; sensations of pain, color, light, sound, etc. These we cannot refer to the body alone or to the soul alone, but must explain by the close and intimate union of the two. The union is not to be conceived as one like that of the pilot to the vessel. My mind and my body compose a substantial unity. All the sensations just mentioned are merely confused modes of consciousness, the result of this union. That is, man is not a pure spirit. Motion in animals, and often in ourselves, occurs without the intervention of reason ; the senses excited by external objects simply react to the animal spirits and the reactions are mechanical, the animal is nothing but a machine ; but this is not the case with human sensations. If I were merely a thinking being, if my soul were not somehow intimately conjoined with my body, I should, for example, know that I am hungry, but not feel hungry. I should not have these confused modes of consciousness.

Just how this intimate union is to be conceived, is not made quite clear, however. Descartes warns us against confounding mind and body with one another. Thought and extension, he tells us, can be combined, in man, in unity of composition, but not in unity of nature : the union should not be compared with a mixture of two bodies. He teaches that ” thought can be troubled by the organs without being the product of them “; sensations, feelings, and appetites are disturbances in the soul resulting from its union with a body. In spite of the union, however, body and soul remain distinct; God has put them together; he cannot rid himself of the power of separating them or of conserving the one apart from the other. Descartes ‘s idea here seems to be that the relation between mind and body is not such that a physical state becomes a mental state, produces or causes a mental state, or vice versa : the mind is simply troubled by organic processes. His obscurity and vacillation on this point are due to his desire to explain the corporeal world on purely mechanical principles and at th same time leave a place for the action of a spiritual principle. The facts of experience point to an intimate connection between the two worlds which his elearcut distinction between them seems to render impossible.

At other times, however, he accepts the theory of causal inter action without hesitation. The soul, though united with the whole body, exercises its functions more particularly, or has its principal seat, in the pineal gland of the brain. Movements are caused by sensible objects in the animal spirits and transferred to the pineal gland ; in this way sensations are produced.

The soul can also move the gland in different ways ; this motion is transferred to the animal spirits and conducted by them over the nerves into the muscles. Here the relation of mind and body is clearly conceived as causal : through the mediation of the pineal gland a certain interaction is brought about between them.

It is also important to notice that the mind is a substance and the modes of a thinking substance are its ideas. For Descartes a substance is a thing requiring nothing else in order to exist. Hence the mind is an immaterial thinking substance, while its ideas are its modes or ways of thinking.

Mind is better known than the body. This is the main point of the wax example found in the Second Meditation. Here, Descartes pauses from his methodological doubt to examine a particular piece of wax fresh from the honeycomb:

It has not yet quite lost the taste of the honey; it retains some of the scent of flowers from which it was gathered; its color shape and size are plain to see; it is hard, cold and can be handled without difficulty; if you rap it with your knuckle it makes a sound. (AT VII 30: CSM II 20)

The point is that the senses perceive certain qualities of the wax like its hardness, smell, and so forth. But, as it is moved closer to the fire, all of these sensible qualities change. “Look: the residual taste is eliminated, the smell goes away, the color changes, the shape is lost, the size increases, it becomes liquid and hot” (AT VII 30: CSM II 20). However, despite these changes in what the senses perceive of the wax, it is still judged to be the same wax now as before. To warrant this judgment, something that does not change must have been perceived in the wax.

Descartes enumerates six primary passions : wonder, love, hate, desire, joy, and sorrow, of which all the rest are species. They are all related to the body; their natural use being to incite the soul to consent and contribute to the actions which tend to preserve the body or to render it in some way more perfect; and in this sense joy and sorrow are the first to be employed. For the soul is directly turned from harmful things only by the feeling of pain, which produces the passion of sorrow, then follow hatred of the cause of the pain and the desire to be freed from the pain.

Our good and evil depend chiefly on the inner emotions excited in the soul only by the soul itself. So long as the soul has something within to satisfy it, all the troubles which come from without have no power to hurt it. And in order that it may have this inner satisfaction, all that is needed is to follow virtue exactly. We note here the Stoic influence on Descartes ‘s ethics. Stoicism was the current ethical theory in the Renaissance and remained popular far into modern times.

This reasoning establishes at least three important points. First, all sensation involves some sort of judgment, which is a mental mode. Accordingly, every sensation is, in some sense, a mental mode, and “the more attributes [that is, modes] we discover in the same thing or substance, the clearer is our knowledge of that substance” (AT VIIIA 8: CSM I 196). Based on this principle, the mind is better known than the body, because it has ideas about both extended and mental things and not just of extended things, and so it has discovered more modes in itself than in bodily substances. Second, this is also supposed to show that what is unchangeable in the wax is its extension in length, breadth and depth, which is not perceivable by the senses but by the mind alone. The shape and size of the wax are modes of this extension and can, therefore, change. But the extension constituting this wax remains the same and permits the judgment that the body with the modes existing in it after being moved by the fire is the same body as before even though all of its sensible qualities have changed. One final lesson is that Descartes is attempting to wean his reader from reliance on sense images as a source for, or an aid to, knowledge. Instead, people should become accustomed to thinking without images in order to clearly understand things not readily or accurately represented by them, for example, God and the mind. So, according to Descartes, immaterial, mental things are better known and, therefore, are better sources of knowledge than extended things.

The idea of God

The idea of God we have received from God ; it is innate. God is not only the cause, but the archetype of our existence, he has created man in his own image. It ought not to be wondered at that God in creating me should have placed this idea in me, to serve as the mark of the workman imprinted on his work. “If God did not exist, I could not possibly be what I am, nor could I have an idea of God. We know more of God himself and of the human mind than we know of corporeal objects. Reflecting upon the idea of God, we perceive that he is eternal, omniscient, omnipotent, the source of all goodness and truth ; the creator of all things. He is not corporeal and does not perceive by means of the senses, as we do. He has intellect and will, but not like ours ; and he does not will evil or sin, for sin is the negation of being”.

According to Descarte,it is also unthinkable that the divine perfections, which we conceive, should have more than one cause, for if these causes were many, they would not be perfect ; to be perfect there must be one cause only, one God. God must be self-caused, for if he is the effect of another being, then that being is the effect of another, and so on ad infinitum: we have an infinite regress and never reach any effect.

We have thus far discovered several self-evident truths: I exist ; Whatever is clearly and distinctly perceived is true ; Nothing can be without a cause; The cause must contain at least as much reality and perfection as the effect; God exists; God is perfect, God cannot deceive us. But how comes it, then, that we are ever deceived, that we ever err at all? In the first place, the power of distinguishing the true from Error & the false, which God has given us, is not infinite.

Moreover, error .depends on the concurrence of two causes, namely, the faculty of recognition and the faculty of election, or the power of free choice, i.e., understanding and will. By understanding alone, we neither affirm nor deny anything, but merely apprehend the ideas regarding which we may form a judgment; no error, properly so-called, is found in it. Neither is the will of itself the source of error, for it is exceedingly ample and perfect in its kind. Errors are due to my failure to restrain the will from judging a thing when we do not conceive it with sufficient clearness and distinctness; by choosing the false in- stead of the true and evil instead of good, the will falls into error and sin.

The ontological argument is found in the Fifth Meditation and follows a more straightforwardly geometrical line of reasoning. Here Descartes argues that God’s existence is deducible from the idea of his nature just as the fact that the sum of the interior angles of a triangle are equal to two right angles is deducible from the idea of the nature of a triangle. The point is that this property is contained in the nature of a triangle, and so it is inseparable from that nature. Accordingly, the nature of a triangle without this property is unintelligible. Similarly, it is apparent that the idea of God is that of a supremely perfect being, that is, a being with all perfections to the highest degree. Moreover, actual existence is a perfection, at least insofar as most would agree that it is better to actually exist than not. Now, if the idea of God did not contain actual existence, then it would lack a perfection. Accordingly, it would no longer be the idea of a supremely perfect being but the idea of something with an imperfection, namely non-existence, and, therefore, it would no longer be the idea of God. Hence, the idea of a supremely perfect being or God without existence is unintelligible. This means that existence is contained in the essence of an infinite substance, and therefore God must exist by his very nature.

God’s existence from intuitively grasped premises, thereby providing, a glimmer of hope of extricating himself from the evil demon scenario. The next step is to demonstrate that God cannot be a deceiver. At the beginning of the Fourth Meditation, Descartes claims that the will to deceive is “undoubtedly evidence of malice or weakness” so as to be an imperfection. But, since God has all perfections and no imperfections, it follows that God cannot be a deceiver. For to conceive of God with the will to deceive would be to conceive him to be both having no imperfections and having one imperfection, which is impossible; it would be like trying to conceive of a mountain without a valley

This means that God cannot be the cause of human error, since he did not create humans with a faculty for generating them, nor could God create some being, like an evil demon, who is bent on deception. Rather, humans are the cause of their own errors when they do not use their faculty of judgment correctly. Second, God’s non-deceiving nature also serves to guarantee the truth of all clear and distinct ideas. So God would be a deceiver, if there were a clear and distinct idea that was false, since the mind cannot help but believe them to be true. Hence, clear and distinct ideas must be true on pain of contradiction.

But this veridical guarantee gives rise to a serious problem within the Meditations, stemming from the claim that all clear and distinct ideas are ultimately guaranteed by God’s existence, which is not established until the Third Meditation. This means that those truths reached in the Second Meditation, such as “I exist” and “I am a thinking thing,” and those principles used in the Third Meditation to conclude that God exists, are not clearly and distinctly understood, and so they cannot be absolutely certain. Hence, since the premises of the argument for God’s existence are not absolutely certain, the conclusion that God exists cannot be certain either. This is what is known as the “Cartesian Circle,” because Descartes’ reasoning seems to go in a circle in that he needs God’s existence for the absolute certainty of the earlier truths and yet he needs the absolute certainty of these earlier truths to demonstrate God’s existence with absolute certainty.

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D.

Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed.

Former Principal, A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

He that will not apply new remedies must expect new evils; for time is the greatest innovator.

Francis Bacon

Francis Bacon (1561-1626) devoted himself to law and polities,  although, so he himself tells us, his chief interests lay along the lines  of the studies to which he gave his leisure hours. Important offices and high honors were conferred upon him by Queen Elizabeth and  King James I, — he was made Baron Verulam and Viscount St. Albans,  and became Lord Chancellor. In 1621 he was accused of having  accepted gifts from litigants in his official capacity as a judge, an  offense which he confessed but which he declared had never influenced  his decisions. He was found guilty, sentenced to imprisonment, heavily  fined, and deprived of office, but received the king’s pardon, and retired to private life.

In a way Bacon’s descent from political power was a fortunate fall, for it represented a liberation from the bondage of public life resulting in a remarkable final burst of literary and scientific activity. As Renaissance scholar and Bacon expert Brian Vickers has reminded us, Bacon’s earlier works, impressive as they are, were essentially products of his “spare time.” It was only during his last five years that he was able to concentrate exclusively on writing and produce, in addition to a handful of minor pieces:

• Two substantial volumes of history and biography, The History of the Reign of King Henry the Seventh and The History of the Reign of King Henry the Eighth.
• De Augmentis Scientiarum (an expanded Latin version of his earlier Advancement of Learning).
• The final 1625 edition of his Essayes, or Counsels.
• The remarkable Sylva Sylvarum, or A Natural History in Ten Centuries (a curious hodge-podge of scientific experiments, personal observations, speculations, ancient teachings, and analytical discussions on topics ranging from the causes of hiccups to explanations for the shortage of rain in Egypt). Artificially divided into ten “centuries” (that is, ten chapters, each consisting of one hundred items), the work was apparently intended to be included in Part Three of the Magna Instauratio.
• His utopian science-fiction novel The New Atlantis, which was published in unfinished form a year after his death.
• Various parts of his unfinished magnum opus Magna Instauratio (or Great Instauration), including a “Natural History of Winds” and a “Natural History of Life and Death.”

These late productions represented the capstone of a writing career that spanned more than four decades and encompassed virtually an entire curriculum of literary, scientific, and philosophical studies.

Among the English predecessors of Bacon were: Everard Digby (+1592), professor of logic at Cambridge, who aroused an interest in the study of philosophy in his country. His Neoplatonic doctrine, which he combined with Cabalism, was opposed by Sir William Temple (1553-1626), who followed the logic of Petrus Ramus and antagonized Aristotle.

Francis Bacon is, in many respects, a typical representative of the new movement. He is opposed to the ancient authorities, to Aristotle and Qreek philosophy no less than to the barren philosophy of the School. The very failures of the past inspire him with the hope and belief that an era of glorious achievement is at hand, that great things are going to happen, that with the abandonment of the fruitless science of the past the face of the earth and of society will be changed.

Bacon’s struggle to overcome intellectual blockades and the dogmatic slumber of his age and of earlier periods had to be fought on many fronts. Very early on he criticized not only Plato, Aristotle and the Aristotelians, but also humanists and Renaissance scholars such as Paracelsus and Bernardino Telesio.

Bacon did not advance the cause of natural science by his own experiments nor, indeed, was he sufficiently acquainted with mathematics to appreciate the work of the great astronomers of the new era. And it can hardly be said that his theory of method exercised an influence on experimental science; science was too far along for that : in his own country William Gilbert (1540-1603), the well-known author of the book De magneie,, had employed the inductive method in his researches before the appearance of Bacon’s writings on the subject. He does, however, deserve the title of the trumpeter of his time, which he applied to himself, for he gave conscious expression to the new scientific spirit. He understood and emphasized the importance of systematic and methodical observation and experimentation in natural science; the other and most important phase of it, mathematics, he mentions and considers essential, but fails to make use of in his theory, simply because he does not know how.

The “Distempers” of Learning

Bacon, in the first book of the Advancement,  goes on to refer to  vanities as the three “distempers” of learning and identifies them as “fantastical learning,” “contentious learning,” and “delicate learning”

By fantastical learning (“vain imaginations”) Bacon had in mind what we would today call pseudo-science: i.e., a collection of ideas that lack any real or substantial foundation, that are professed mainly by occultists and charlatans, In Bacon’s day such “imaginative science” was familiar in the form of astrology, natural magic, and alchemy.

By contentious learning (“vain altercations”) Bacon was referring mainly to Aristotelian philosophy and theology and especially to the Scholastic tradition of logical hair-splitting and metaphysical quibbling.

Delicate learning (“vain affectations”) was Bacon’s label for the new humanism insofar as  it seemed concerned not with the actual recovery of ancient texts or the retrieval of past knowledge but merely with the revival of Ciceronian rhetorical embellishments and the reproduction of classical prose style.

In short, in Bacon’s view the distempers impede genuine intellectual progress by beguiling talented thinkers into fruitless, illusory, or purely self-serving ventures. What is needed – and this is a theme reiterated in all his later writings on learning and human progress – is a program to re-channel that same creative energy into socially useful new discoveries.

Theory of the Idols

In Redargutio Philosophiarum Bacon reflects on his method, but he also criticizes prejudices and false opinions, especially the system of speculation established by theologians, as an obstacle to the progress of science.

Bacon deals with the idols in the Second Book of The Advancement of Learning, where he discusses Arts intellectual (Invention, Judgment, Memory, Tradition). In his paragraph on judgment he refers to proofs and demonstrations, especially to induction and invention. When he comes to Aristotle’s treatment of the syllogism, he reflects on the relation between sophistically fallacies Whereas induction, invention, and judgment presuppose “the same action of the mind”, this is not true for proof in the syllogism. Bacon, therefore, prefers his own interpretatio naturae, repudiating elenches as modes of sophistical ‘juggling’ in order to persuade others in redargutions (“degenerate and corrupt use … for caption and contradiction”). There is no finding without proof and no proof without finding. But this is not true for the syllogism, in which proof (syllogism: judgment of the consequent) and invention (of the ‘mean’ or middle term) are distinct.

. The complete doctrine of detection of fallacies, according to Bacon, contains three segments:

1. Sophistical fallacies, Bacon praises Aristotle for his excellent handling of the matter, but he also mentions Plato honorably.
2. Fallacies of interpretation,  refer to “Adventitious Conditions or Adjuncts of Essences”, similar to the predicaments, open to physical or logical inquiry. He focuses his attention on the logical handling when he relates the detection of fallacies of interpretation to the wrong use of common and general notions.
3. False appearances or Idols. Bacon finds a place for his idols, when he refers to the detection of false appearances as the deepest fallacies of the human mind: For they corrupt and ill-ordered predisposition of mind, which as it were perverts and infects all the anticipations of the intellect.

According to Aphorism XXIII of the First Book, Bacon makes a distinction between the Idols of the human mind and the Ideas of the divine mind: whereas the former are for him nothing more than “certain empty dogmas”, the latter show “the true signatures and marks set upon the works of creation as they are found in nature” (Bacon IV [1901], 51).

In Book I of the New Organon (Aphorisms 39-68), Bacon introduces his famous doctrine of the “idols.” These are characteristic errors, natural tendencies, or defects that beset the mind and prevent it from achieving a full and accurate understanding of nature. Bacon points out that recognizing and counteracting the idols is as important to the study of nature as the recognition and refutation of bad arguments is to logic. Incidentally, he uses the word “idol” – from the Greek eidolon (“image” or “phantom”) – not in the sense of a false god or heathen deity but rather in the sense employed in Epicurean physics. Thus a Baconian idol is a potential deception or source of misunderstanding, especially one that clouds or confuses our knowledge of external reality. Bacon also listed what he called the Idols (false images) of the mind – examples of what is now called cognitive bias. He described these as things which obstructed the path of correct scientific reasoning. Idols are productions of the human imagination (caused by the crooked mirror of the human mind) and thus are nothing more than “untested generalities” (Malherbe 1996, 80).

Bacon’s doctrine of the idols not only represents a stage in the history of theories of error (Brandt 1979) but also functions as an important theoretical element within the rise of modern empiricism. According to Bacon, the human mind is not a tabula rasa. Instead of an ideal plane for receiving an image of the world in toto, it is a crooked mirror, on account of implicit distortions (Bacon IV [1901], 428–34). He does not sketch a basic epistemology but underlines that the images in our mind right from the beginning do not render an objective picture of the true objects. Consequently, we have to improve our mind, i.e., free it from the idols, before we start any knowledge acquisition.

Bacon identifies four different classes of idol. Each arises from a different source, and each presents its own special hazards and difficulties.

Idols of the Tribe

The Idols of the Tribe have their origin in the production of false concepts due to human nature, because the structure of human understanding is like a crooked mirror, which causes distorted reflections (of things in the external world).

These are the natural weaknesses and tendencies common to human nature. Because they are innate, they cannot be completely eliminated, but only recognized and compensated for. Some of Bacon’s examples are: Our senses – which are inherently dull and easily deceivable.  Our tendency to discern  more order in phenomena than is actually there. As Bacon points out, we are apt to find similitude where there is actually singularity, regularity where there is actually randomness, etc. Our tendency towards “wishful thinking.” According to Bacon, we have a natural inclination to accept, believe, and even prove what we would prefer to be true. Our tendency to rush to conclusions and make premature judgments .

Idols of the Cave

Unlike the idols of the tribe, which are common to all human beings, those of the cave vary from individual to individual. They arise, that is to say, not from nature but from culture and thus reflect the peculiar distortions, prejudices, and beliefs that we are all subject to owing to our different family backgrounds, childhood experiences, education, training, gender, religion, social class, etc. Examples include: Special allegiance to a particular discipline or theory. High esteem for a few select authorities .A  tendency to reduce or confine phenomena within the terms of our own narrow training or discipline. The Idols of the Cave consist of conceptions or doctrines which are dear to the individual who cherishes them, without possessing any evidence of their truth. These idols are due to the preconditioned system of every individual, comprising education, custom, or accidental or contingent experiences.

Idols of the Market Place

These idols are based on false conceptions which are derived from public human communication. They enter our minds quietly by a combination of words and names, so that it comes to pass that not only does reason govern words, but words react on our understanding.

These are hindrances to clear thinking that arise, Bacon says, from the “intercourse and association of men with each other.” The main culprit here is language, though not just common speech, but also (and perhaps particularly) the special discourses, vocabularies, and jargons of various academic communities and disciplines. He points out that “the idols imposed by words on the understanding are of two kinds”: “they are either names of things that do not exist” (e.g., the crystalline spheres of Aristotelian cosmology) or faulty, vague, or misleading names for things that do exist (according to Bacon, abstract qualities and value terms – e.g., “moist,” “useful,” etc. – can be a particular source of confusion).

Idols of the Theatre

According to the insight that the world is a stage, the Idols of the Theatre are prejudices stemming from received or traditional philosophical systems. These systems resemble plays in so far as they render fictional worlds, which were never exposed to an experimental check or to a test by experience. The idols of the theatre thus have their origin in dogmatic philosophy or in wrong laws of demonstration.

Bacon ends his presentation of the idols in Novum Organum, Book I, Aphorism LXVIII, with the remark that men should abjure and renounce the qualities of idols, “and the understanding [must be] thoroughly freed and cleansed” (Bacon IV [1901], 69). He discusses the idols together with the problem of information gained through the senses, which must be corrected by the use of ..

Like the idols of the cave, those of the theatre are culturally acquired rather than innate. And although the metaphor of a theatre suggests an artificial imitation of truth, as in drama or fiction, Bacon makes it clear that these idols derive mainly from grand schemes or systems of philosophy – and especially from three particular types of philosophy:

• Sophistical Philosophy – that is, philosophical systems based only on a few casually observed instances and  constructed mainly out of abstract argument and speculation.
• Empirical Philosophy – that is, a philosophical system ultimately based on a single key insight , which is then erected into a model or paradigm to explain phenomena of all kinds.
• Superstitious Philosophy – this is Bacon’s phrase for any system of thought that mixes theology and philosophy.

As early as Temporis partus masculus, Bacon warns the student of empirical science not to tackle the complexities of his subject without purging the mind of its idols: On waxen tablets you cannot write anything new until you rub out the old. With the mind it is not so; there you cannot rub out the old till you have written in the new. (Farrington 1964, 72)

The Inductive Approach

Not everyone from 300 B.C. to 1600 A.D. was willing to bow to the authority of Aristotle. Many of Aristotle’s arguments were faulty, but where did he go wrong, and what was the right way to proceed?

There were no subtle logical errors in Aristotle’s use of the deductive method. The problem was that the deductive method, while wildly successful in mathematics, did not fit well with scientific investigations of nature.

Bacon’s manuscripts already mention the doctrine of the idols as a necessary condition for constituting scientia operativa. In Cogitata et Visa he compares deductive logic as used by the scholastics to a spider’s web, which is drawn out of its own entrails, whereas the bee is introduced as an image of scientia operativa. Like a bee, the empiricist, by means of his inductive method, collects the natural matter or products and then works them up into knowledge in order to produce honey, which is useful for healthy nutrition.

Bacon’s philosophy was the opposite. Leading up to and during Bacon’s time, philosophies existed that were rooted in pure faith and not so much in reason; these outdated philosophies were promoted by the church [Landry]. The fruitlessness of science and philosophy in the past, Bacon thinks, has been due to the absence of a proper method. The unassisted hand and the understanding left to itself  possess but little power. We must devise a new   way of reaching knowledge, a new machine or  organ for the mind, a new logic, a novum organum. The old logic is useless for the discovery of the sciences, it assists in  confirming and rendering inveterate the errors founded on vulgar  notions rather than in seeking after truth.

The foundation is natural science, the method induction, and the goal the art of invention. The reason so little progress has been made in twenty-five hundred years, is that the right methods of acquiring knowledge have not been followed. Some use the method of demonstration, but they start from principles which have been hastily formed or taken on trust and are uncertain. Others follow the way of sense, but the senses, left to themselves, are faulty; still others despair of all knowledge, but this attitude, too, is dogmatic and unsatisfactory. We must begin the work anew and raise or rebuild the sciences, arts, and all human knowledge from a firm and solid basis. This is the great Instauration.

in order to produce effects, we should know causes. Our present syllogistic methods will not avail; our present sciences are but peculiar arrangements of matters already discovered. The syllogism consists of propositions, propositions of words, and words are signs of notions. Hence, if the notions are confused and carelessly abstracted from things, — and that is the case, — there is no solidity in the whole superstructure. The notions, principles, and axioms used in the syllogism are all based on experience, — as indeed all principles or axioms are, — but on vague and faulty experience; they are hasty generalizations from experience. Our hope, then, is genuine induction. We must continually raise up propositions by degrees and in the last place come to the most general and well-defined axioms, in an orderly and methodical way. That is, we must combine the experimental and the rational faculties.

But before describing the method in detail, our reformer insists that the mind clear itself of all false opinions, prejudices, or idols, of which there are four kinds. The eye of the mind, he tells us, must never be taken off from the things themselves, but receive their images truly as they are. The past has done nothing; its methods, foundations, and results were wrong; we must begin all over again, free our minds of transmitted and inherited prejudices and opinions, go to the things themselves instead of following opinions and dealing in words, — in short, do our own thinking.

Bacon is most commonly known for advocating the inductive approach to science.  He argued that there had been limited progress over the ages due to the fact that scholastic philosophers altered their findings on nature to meet the requirements of scripture. Bacon delineated the principles of the inductive thinking method, while the term “method” goes back to the times of Aristotle, Bacon constituted a breakthrough in the approach to science.  He denounced the scholastic thinkers for their attachment to Aristotelian doctrines, which he felt prevented independent thinking and the acquisition of new ideas regarding nature. He argued that to improve the quality of human life, the advancement of science should not depend on ancient texts, and that old authorities should be considered redundant and unnecessary. He believed that knowledge should be pursued in a new and organized way.  His idea of an inductive approach included the careful observation of nature with a systematic accumulation of data to draw upon. New laws were soon created based on the knowledge of particular findings through testing and experimentation.

The inductive method (usually called the scientific method) is the deductive method “turned upside down”. The deductive method starts with a few true statements (axioms) with the goal of proving many true statements (theorems) that logically follow from them. The inductive method starts with many observations of nature, with the goal of finding a few, powerful statements about how nature works (laws and theories).

In the deductive method, logic is the authority. If a statement follows logically from the axioms of the system, it must be true. In the scientific method, observation of nature is the authority. If an idea conflicts with what happens in nature, the idea must be changed or abandoned.

Induction does not consist in simple enumeration, —that is a childish thing. The aim of human knowledge is to discover the forms, or true differences, or the source of emanation, of a given nature or quality. By form Bacon means not what the realists meant, not abstract forms or ideas. Matter rather than forms, he tells us, should be the object of our attention ; nothing exists in nature besides individual bodies which act according to fixed law. In philosophy the investigation, discovery, and explanation of this very law is the foundation as well of knowledge as of operation. This law he calls the form, a term which had come into general use; Telesio, whom Bacon mentions, speaks of heat and cold as active forms of nature. The form of heat is the law of heat, it is what determines or regulates beat wherever heat is found, it is what heat depends on. Whoever knows the forms, understands the unity of nature in substances most unlike; he knows what in nature is constant and eternal and universal, and opens broad roads to human power such as human thought can scarcely comprehend or anticipate.

Bacon declares that the form or substantial self of heat is motion, it is the motion of the small particles of the body. The investigation of forms (causes) which are eternal and immutable constitutes metaphysics; the investigation of efficient cause and matter, and of the latent process, and latent configurations, constitutes physics. The application of the knowledge of forms or fundamental laws of nature leads to the highest kind of invention. Bacon calls it magic, it is practical metaphysics. The application of knowledge of material and efficient causes is mechanics or practical physics.

The most important causes or laws, then, which science has to discover are forms, and these are found by induction.

(1) The form of a nature or quality (heat, for example) is such that, given the form, the quality infallibly follows. It is, therefore, always present when the quality is present, and universally implies it, and is constantly inherent in it.

(2) Again, the form is such that if it be taken away, the quality infallibly vanishes. Hence, it is always absent when the quality is absent, and implies its absence, and inheres in nothing else.

(3) Lastly, the true form is such that it deduces the given quality from some source of being which is inherent in more qualities, and which is better known in the natural order of things than the form itself.

All this gives us the clue to our method of procedure.

(1) A quality being given, we must, first, consider all the known instances which agree in the same quality though in substances the most unlike .

(2) Then we must review the instances in which the given quality is wanting (the so-called negative instances). The negatives should be subjoined to the affirmatives, and the absence of the given quality inquired of in those subjects only that are most akin to the others in which it is present and forthcoming.

.(3) Then we take the cases in which the object of our inquiry is present in a greater or less degree, either by comparing its increase and decrease in the same object, or its degree in different objects.

Bacon mentions eleven other helps to the mind in discovering- forms, each of which has its name : rejection, first vintage, prerogative instances, etc., but works out only three.

System of Sciences

Within the history of occidental philosophy and science, Bacon identifies only three revolutions or periods of learning: the heyday of the Greeks and that of the Romans and Western Europe in his own time. This meager result stimulated his ambition to establish a new system of the sciences. This tendency can already be seen in his early manuscripts, but is also apparent in his first major book, The Advancement of Learning. In this work Bacon presents a systematic survey of the extant realms of knowledge, combined with meticulous descriptions of deficiencies, leading to his new classification of knowledge. In The Advancement  a new function is given to philosophia prima, the necessity of which he had indicated in the Novum Organum. In both texts this function is attributed to philosophia naturalis, the basis for his concept of the unity of the sciences and thus of materialism.

Natural science is divided by Bacon into physics and metaphysics. The former investigates variable and particular causes, the latter reflects on general and constant ones, for which the term form is used. Forms are more general than the four Aristotelian causes and that is why Bacon’s discussion of the forms of substances as the most general properties of matter is the last step for the human mind when investigating nature. Metaphysics is distinct from philosophia prima. The latter marks the position in the system where general categories of a general theory of science are treated as (1) universal categories of thought, (2) relevant for all disciplines. Final causes are discredited, since they lead to difficulties in science and tempt us to amalgamate theological and teleological points of doctrine. At the summit of Bacon’s pyramid of knowledge are the laws of nature (the most general principles). At its base the pyramid starts with observations, moves on to invariant relations and then to more inclusive correlations until it reaches the stage of forms. The process of generalization ascends from natural history via physics towards metaphysics, whereas accidental correlations and relations are eliminated by the method of exclusion. It must be emphasized that metaphysics has a special meaning for Bacon. This concept (1) excludes the infinity of individual experience by generalization with a teleological focus and (2) opens our mind to generate more possibilities for the efficient application of general laws.

Bacon held that mankind must begin the work of science anew. It was natural, under the circumstances, that he did not offer a complete theory of the universe himself; his office was to stake out the ground and to point the way to new achievements.

To this end he planned his great work,consisting of six parts, only two of which were completed : the Encyclopedia or Advancement of Learning and the Novum Organum. He divides the field of knowledge, or ” the intellectual globe,” into history, poetry and philosophy, according to the faculties of the mind (memory, imagination, and reason), and subdivides each into numerous specialist branches.

Philosophy is the work of reason ; it deals with abstract notions derived from impressions of sense; and in the composition and division of these notions, according to the law of nature and fact, its business lies. It embraces : primary philosophy, revealed theology, natural theology, metaphysics, physics, mechanics, magic, mathematics, psychology, and ethics. Primary philosophy busies itself with the axioms common to several sciences, with what we should now call laws of thought and categories. Metaphysics has two functions: to discover the eternal and immutable forms of bodies and to discuss purposes, ends, or final causes. Final causes have no place in physics ; Democritus never wasted any time on them, hence, Bacon declares, he penetrates farther into nature than Plato and Aristotle, who were ever inculcating them. The doctrine of final causes has no practical value, but is a barren thing, or as a virgin consecrated to God. Mathematics is a branch of metaphysics, — being a science of quantity, which is one of the essential, most abstract, and separable forms of matter. Mathematics and logic both ought to be handmaids of physics, but instead they have come to domineer over physics. Mathematics is of great importance to metaphysics, mechanics, and magic.

The philosophy of man comprises human and civil, or political, philosophy. In the former we consider man separate, in the latter joined in society. Human philosophy studies of Man connection. Among its topics are the miseries and the prerogatives or excellencies of the human race, physiognomy and the interpretation of natural dreams, the effect of bodily states on mind (madness, insanity) and the influence of mind on body, the proper seat and habitation of each faculty of the mind in the body and its organs, also ” medicine, cosmetic, athletic, and voluptuary.”

The human soul has a divine or rational part and an irrational part All problems relating to the former must be handed over to religion. The sensitive or produced soul is corporeal, attenuated by heat and rendered invisible, and resides chiefly in the head (in perfect animals), running along the nerves and refreshed and repaired by the spirituous blood of the arteries. The faculties of the soul are understanding, reason, imagination, memory, appetite, with, and all those with which logic and ethics are concerned. The origins of these faculties must be physically treated. The questions of voluntary motion and sensibility are interesting. How can so minute and subtle a breath as the (material) soul put in motion bodies so gross and hard.

Bacon finds a manifest power of perception in most bodies, and a kind of appetite to choose what is agreeable, and to avoid what is disagreeable to them (the loadstone attracts iron, one drop of water runs into another). A body feels the impulse of another body, perceives the removal of any body that with held it; perception is diffused through all nature. But how far, he inquires, can perception ‘be caused without sense (consciousness) t We see how hard it was for the new thinker to get the old medieval notions of an animated nature out of his bones.

Logic treats of the understanding and reason; and ethics, of the will, appetite, and affections; the one produces resolutions, the other actions. The logical arts are inquiry or invention, examination or judgment, custody or memory, elocution or delivery. The study of induction belongs to the art of judgment.

Ethics describes the nature of the good and prescribes rules for conforming to it. Man is prompted by selfish and social impulses (as later writers called them). Individual or self good, self-preservation and defence, differs entirely from the social good, though they may sometimes coincide. The social good is called duty. It is the business of the science of government to discover the fountains of justice and public good.

Philosophy, in the broad sense, is the apex of the pyramid of knowledge. It is founded on the just, pure, and strict inquiry of all the subjects of study already proposed by Bacon. His purpose was not to offer a universal system, but ” to lay more firmly the foundations and extend more widely the limits.

Metaphysics of the power and greatness of man.” It did not Theoloev appear to him that the time had come for attempting a theory of the universe ; indeed, he seemed to be doubtful of the possibility of reaching such knowledge at all.

Theology he divides into natural and inspired or revealed. Natural theology is that knowledge, or rather rudiment of knowledge, concerning God, which may be obtained by the light of nature and the contemplation of his creatures. The bounds of this knowledge, truly drawn, are that it suffices to refute and convince atheism, and to give information as to the law of nature, but not to establish religion. ” It is an assumed truth and conclusion of experience that a little or superficial knowledge

of philosophy may incline the mind of man to atheism; but a farther proceeding therein doth bring the mind back again to religion.” Yet, such a study does not yield a perfect knowledge of God; nor can we adapt the heavenly mysteries to our reason. Knowledge derived from the senses, as all science is derived, cannot help us here : ” the senses are like the sun, which displays the face of the earth, but shuts up that of the heavens.”

The cleavage which Bacon makes between theology and philosophy is the inheritance of the closing Middle Ages ; by relegating the dogmas to a separate territory, the field was left free for philosophy. His attitude toward theology is really one of in- difference. It may surprise us that he devotes so much attention to such subjects as astrology, dreams, divination, etc., but these things were widely believed in his day, and a scientific treatment of them was not out of place at that time.

Although Bacon’s empiricism is not thoroughly and consistently worked out, we may class him among the members of that school. All our knowledge, except revelation, is derived by him from sensation; and only particulars should exist. Mind or reason acts on the materials furnished by the senses; knowledge is rational and experimental, but reason has no truths of its own. At the same

time, mental faculties are spoken of as though they were a priori endowments. The soul is material, and yet there is a rational soul, about which, however, we know nothing, and which belongs to religion. Teleology is banished from physics and becomes a part of a barren part of metaphysics.

Bacon and Astrology

Bacon felt that astrology was very full of superstition, and argued that there was very little sound evidence to be discovered in it. However, he wanted to see astrology ‘purified’ rather than rejected altogether . He believed that astrology needed to be based on reason and physical speculation, and rejected the use of horoscopes, nativities, elections, and query. Bacon insisted that the heavenly bodies affected the more sensitive bodies, such as humours, air, spirits, an actually affected solid bodies and large numbers of people. However, he also felt that the influence on an “individual” was so small that it would be insignificant [. He held that astrological predictions of the climate and what each season would bring forth, could be accurate and have some value.  In contrast, forecasts for particular days held no value.

Bacon’s view was that if astrology was purified, then it would be accepted as a "Sane Astrology." Thus the very nature of the stars and planets and hence their differences, needed to be updated in accord with logical sense, and not be contradicted or be inconsistent with what was scientifically proven. Such a "Sane Astrology" would be used for the prediction of comets, meteors, coming droughts, heats, frosts, earthquakes, fiery eruptions, winds, great rains, the seasons of the year, plagues, epidemic diseases, plenty, famine, wars, transmigration of people, or great innovations of things both natural and civil [Tester, 222]. Astrology could be used for agricultural or horticultural actions, factors including planting according to the phase of the Moon would be particularly important. He rejected the use of all semi-magical uses of astrology connected with seals, talismans, amulets, etc. In Novum Organum, Bacon was very dismissive and said that all superstition is much the same whether it was in regards to astrology, dreams, omens, or any of the like.

Bacon’s reputation and legacy remain controversial even today. While no historian of science or philosophy doubts his immense importance both as a proselytizer on behalf of the empirical method and as an advocate of sweeping intellectual reform, opinion varies widely as to the actual social value and moral significance of the ideas that he represented and effectively bequeathed to us. On the other hand, those who view nature as an entity in its own right, a higher-order estate of which the human community is only a part, tend to perceive him as a kind of arch-villain – the evil originator of the idea of science as the instrument of global imperialism and technological conquest.

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D.

Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed.

Former Principal  A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

We are born weak, we need strength; helpless, we need aid; foolish, we need reason. All that we lack at birth, all that we need when we come to man’s estate, is the gift of education.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

These are the words of a man who has had a propound influence on the field of education. This man is none other than Jean Jacques Rousseau  (French: [ʒɑ̃ʒak ʁuso]; 28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Gene van philosopher, writer, and composer of the 18th century. His political philosophy influenced the French Revolution as well as the overall development of modern political, sociological, and educational thought.

Rousseau is one of those philosophers who have been greatly misunderstood. Many have criticized his philosophy as being totally outdated and not much applicable in today’s situation. But this seems paradoxical as Rousseau has also been that person who has had a great influence in the field of education. It is important to understand that Rousseau has been criticized more because people have not really understood why he expressed himself the way he did.

Two main aspects come out very strongly in his philosophy. They are nature, and the child. Both these were of great importance in his philosophy of education.

Rousseau believed it was possible to preserve the original nature of the child by careful control of his education and environment based on an analysis of the different physical and psychological stages through which he passed from birth to maturity (Stewart and McCann 1967). As we have seen he thought that momentum for learning was provided by growth of the person (nature).

The work that made Rousseau famous and which would be great for us would be his novel Émile, It is in this book that one will find all his concerns of the child, and his aims of education. The focus of Émile is upon the individual tuition of a boy/young man in line with the principles of ‘natural education’.

The book is divided into five parts, four of which deal with Emile’s education in the stages of infancy, childhood, boyhood and youth respectively. The fifth part deals with the training of the girl who is to become his wife. Thus, through an imaginary student, Emile, Rousseau projects how a child should be educated and trained.

On the development of the person

The education of children of children is determined by the various periods of development. In Émile, Rousseau divides development into five stages. According to him, the various stages are sharply marked off from one another by their special characteristics or functions. The first stage from birth to five is the animal stage. Then there emerges the dawn of self consciousness. At twelve, he suddenly becomes conscious of his self in a deeper way. The rational faculty awakens and with it, the higher sentiments emerge. But the child is still an isolated being without true moral life. The next stage is reached at puberty, with the emergence of a person’s sexuality, which is the most important factor in the entire life history of the individual. With the emergence of sex, the social life of the individual properly begins.

As the periods are sharply marked in their rise, they are independent of each other in their development. No period should be made a means of getting to the next. Each is an end in itself, an independent whole, and not merely a transition to higher period. The stages below are those associated with males.

Stage 1: Infancy (birth to two years). The first stage is infancy, from birth to about two years. (Book I). Education begins at birth or before, and the first period of five years is concerned primarily with the growth of the body, motor activities, sense perception, and feelings.

According to Rousseau children’s first sensations are wholly in the realm of feeling. They are only aware of pleasure and pain.  we are born with a capacity for learning, but know nothing and distinguish nothing. The mind is cramped by imperfect half-formed organs and has not even the consciousness of its own existence. Even the movements, the cries of the new born child are purely mechanical, quite devoid of understanding and will.

The method of nature had to be followed in everything. Thus Rousseau, with impassionate pleading, recalled mothers to their natural duties, and even made it fashionable to breast feed their offspring.

The individuality of each child had to be respected. The doctrine of individual differences is fundamental to Rousseau. He wrote “One nature needs wings, another shackles: one has to be flattered, another to be intimidated. One man is made to carry human knowledge to the farthest point; another may find the possibility to read a dangerous power.” (Eby 346)

For Rousseau education does not arise from without; it springs from within. It is the internal development of our faculties and organs that constitutes the true education of nature .Even in infancy, the facing of hardships is nature’s method. “A child born ,lives and dies in a state of slavery. At the time of birth he is stitched in swaddling clothes and at the time of death he is nailed in a coffin, and as long as he preserves the human form he is fettered by our institutions”. In this regard he claims, “Observe nature and follow the route which she traces for you. She is ever exciting children to activity; she hardens the constitution by trials of every sort; she teaches at an early hour what suffering and pain are.” (Eby 346)

The first education is the free and unhampered expression of the natural activities of the child in relation to the physical environment. The only habit the child should be allowed to acquire is to contract none…Nothing must be done for the child that he can do for himself. This was the principle that governed infancy. “Life is a struggle for existence; this is the most fundamental biological law – a law to which the child must conform. Prepare in good time form the reign of freedom and the exercise of his powers, by allowing his body its natural habits and accustoming him always to be his own master and follow the dictates of his will as soon as he has a will of his own. (Émile, Book 1 – translation by Boyd 1956: 23; Everyman edn: 30). Rousseau detested medicine and considered hygiene less a science than a virtue or habit of right living.

The important thing is that the child is allowed to obey the inner impulse to action, and that he experiences directly the results of his behaviour. Moral and social life are absolutely alien to the infants mind. The reason being that at this time errors and vices begin to germinate. All vices are implanted by unwise coddling or pampering of infants. By allowing this to happen, one germinates in their little hearts, the spirit of caprice and an insatiable appetite for self-aggrandizement.

Stage 2: ‘The age of Nature’ ( from two to ten or twelve ), is ‘the age of Nature’. This is the most important and most critical period of human life. It has to be controlled by two principles, namely, education should be negative, and that moral training should be by natural consequences.The purpose of education at this stage is to develop physical qualities and particularly senses, but not minds.

By this negative education, Rousseau did not maintain that there should be no education at all, but that there should be one of a different kind, from the normally accepted educational practices. Rousseau claimed that positive education was that type of education which formed the mind prematurely, and which instructed the child in duties that belonged to man. Negative education according to him, was that education which perfected the organs that are the instruments of knowledge, before giving the knowledge directly. It further prepares the way for reason by the proper exercise of the senses.

Negative education does not imply a time of idleness. It does not give virtues, but protects the person from vice. It does not inculcate truth, but protects one from error. It helps the child to take the path that will lead him to truth, when he has reached the age to understand it. It will also help him to take the path of goodness, when he has acquired the faculty of recognizing and loving it.

The first education, then, should be purely negative. It consists, not in teaching the principles of virtue and truth, but in guarding the heart against vice and the mind against error.

Rousseau adopted this method for the reasons that human nature is good and that it unfolds by virtue of inner compulsion. Any interference with this natural unfolding would be corrupting. The evils of man are directly due to the bad education that he has received.

Rousseau was a severe critic of the methods then in fashion in the schools. For most children, childhood was a sorrowful period, as instruction was heartlessly severe. Teachers had not yet imagined that children could find any pleasure in learning, or that they should have eyes for anything but reading, writing, and memorizing. The only form of learning that teachers knew was learning by rote. Rousseau considered this a grave error; for he believed that the child had no real memory, and that purely verbal lessons meant nothing to him.

Rousseau saw in such a method only a means of slaving mankind. This was the education that depended on books and upon the authority of others. Of his bitter aversion to books Rousseau expressed himself vigorously. “I hate books; they merely teach us to talk of what we do not know.” (Eby 348) The only book Émile is allowed is Robinson Crusoe – an expression of the solitary, self-sufficient man that Rousseau seeks to form (Boyd 1956: 69).

He was deeply shocked at the bad methods of motivation and discipline involved. He disapproved of rebukes, corrections, threats, and punishments. Worst of all, he hated prizes, rewards and promises. These for him, only induced them to do or learn something that was alien to their active interests.

Stage 3: Pre-adolescence (12-15). Émile in Stage 3 is like the ‘noble savage’ Rousseau describes in The Social Contract. ‘About twelve or thirteen the child’s strength increases far more rapidly than his needs’ (Everyman edn.: 128)

The period from twelve to fifteen, Rousseau called the ‘Age of Reason,’ for the emergence of reason is its most important characteristic. Self preservation is the fundamental urge of life, the spontaneous expression of inner, biological animalist. This is the period in life in which the strength of the individual is greater than his needs. The sex passions, the most violent and terrible of all, have not yet awakened. He is indifferent to the rigours of weathers and seasons, and braves them light heartedly. His growing body heat takes the place of clothing. Appetite is his sauce, and everything nourishing tastes good. When he is tired, he stretches himself out on the ground, and goes to sleep. He is not troubled by imaginary wants. What people think does not trouble him. Not only is he self-sufficient, but his strength goes beyond his requirements.

Only when the child has reached the aged of twelve, does reason begin to stir, and the time for its uninterrupted development is exceedingly brief. When the strength of youth is augmented out of proportion to his needs, reason awakens in order to furnish guidance, for this is the function of the rational life.

What causes the emergence of rational judgment at this stage? The explanation that Rousseau gives is one of the deeper theories that he evolved. The inner life of the child is conditioned by the relation, which his needs bear to the strength that he can exert for the satisfaction of those needs. In infancy, his needs are few and simple, and his strength feeble. At the age of twelve, the strength of the child is developed much more rapidly than his needs. Owing to his pre pubertal increment in muscular power, the youth is much stronger than is necessary to satisfy his needs, which have as yet remained few and simple. “He whose strength exceeds his desires has some power to spare; he is certainly a very strong being.” (Eby 353)It is this preponderance of strength beyond the satisfaction of his needs that causes reason to emerge.

Reason is an accessory faculty, “Our needs or desires are the original cause of our activities; in turn, our activities produce intelligence, in order to guide and govern our strength and passions, for reason is the check to strength.” (Eby 353) Inasmuch as intelligence evolved in relation to activities, it is necessary that these be developed to a high degree before reason appears. “Childhood is the sleep of reason. Furthermore, Rousseau declared: ‘Of all the faculties of man, reason is that which is developed with the most difficulty and the latest.” (Eby 353)

Reason then is not some divine entity, but only an accessory faculty. This is the age when real education by the human agency begins. Up to this time, the unfolding of the child has been determined by natural laws; and with the action of these laws the educator must never interfere.

The common mistake of parents is to suppose that their children are capable of reasoning as soon as they are born, and to talk to them as though they are already grown up persons. Reason is the instrument they use, whereas every instrument first ought to be used in order to form their reason… (Eby 354)

Educators have made numerous blunders they have not understood the nature of reason and the time when it arises. The first blunder was to educate the child through reason. This for Rousseau was to begin at the end. Thus all efforts to reason with children before reason emerges, is not only foolish but injurious.

The second blunder has been to substitute authority for the child’s own mental efforts .The design of nature is obviously to strengthen the body before the mind. When allowed to awaken at the proper time, reason projects the future of the child.

The third blunder of traditional instructional methodology was attributing to reason a power that it did not posses. This was the mistake of the rationalists. As reason appears later than the passions, and as it emerges out of them, it is subordinate to them. It is not the reliable guide for conduct. “Rousseau startled philosophy by declaring that a ‘the divine voice of a man’s heart and his inner conscience alone are the infallible guides and capable of bringing him happiness.” (Eby 355)

The fourth blunder is allowing rivalry in schools. Rivalry had always been one of the chief motivations in school. Rousseau regarded it as the arch evil of social life and utterly prohibited its unemployment. “Let there be no comparisons with other children; as soon as he begins to reason let him have no rivals, no competitors, even in running. I would a hundred times rather he would not learn what he can learn only through jealousy and vanity.” (Eby 355) This clearly shows the detest Rousseau had for rivalry or emulation.

The central concern of Rousseau was threefold:

1) The first was to implant a taste for knowledge. He believed that knowledge had to be given, but the person should also be taught how to acquire it when necessary. This will enable the student to estimate its worth, and to love it above everything else.

2) The second was to think clearly. Thus for Rousseau the important thing was that only those ideas which were accurate and clear should enter the mind.

3) The third was to furnish the right method. It was not only important to teach the student the sciences, but to also give him a taste for it. This for him was the fundamental principle of all good education. (Eby 356)

Thus Rousseau placed Emile in situations that obliged him to depend upon his own strength, to get his own bread, to think his own thoughts, to reach his own conclusions. By this Rousseau was basically trying to say that Emile had to depend on his own brains and not on the opinions of others. Rousseau firmly believed that we learn things much better if we learn them by ourselves. Thus his great principle was that nothing should be learnt on the authority of others.

Stage 4: Puberty (15-20). Rousseau believes that by the time Émile is fifteen, his reason will be well developed, and he will then be able to deal with he sees as the dangerous emotions of adolescence, and with moral issues and religion. The second paragraph of the book contains the famous lines: ‘We are born, so to speak, twice over; born into existence, and born into life; born a human being, and born a man’ (Everyman edn: 172).  He is still wanting to hold back societal pressures and influences so that the ‘natural inclinations’ of the person may emerge without undue corruption. There is to be a gradual entry into community life (Boyd 1956: 95).

The soft slight down on his cheeks grows darker and firmer. His voice breaks, or rather, gets lost. He is neither child nor man, and he speaks like neither. His eyes, organs of the soul, which have hitherto has nothing, find language and experience as they light up with a new fire. (Cahn 170)

Up to this stage, life was more an animal existence, but now human sentiments begin to emerge. Hitherto the child’s body, senses and brain have been formed. It is now time for his hear ton to be shaped. The child had been educated solely for himself and by himself.

Now he has to be educated for a life with others and is to be educated in social relationships. Love for others, now becomes the controlling motive. Emotional development and moral perfection becomes the goal.

But man is not meant to be a child for ever. At the time prescribed by nature, he passes out of his childhood. As the fretting of the sea precedes the distant storm, this disturbing change is announced by the murmur of nascent passions….

The most crucial event in the history of the human being is the emergence of sex. All the highest experiences and sentiments arise due to the emergence of the sex life. As soon as a man has the need of a companion, he is no longer an isolated being. All his relations with his species and all the affections of the soul are born with her. The sex life arouses many other sentiments which are secondary to it. Among these senses are those such as appreciation of beauty and the sublime, the perception of human relations, the sense of moral and social life and the religious emotions.

The mind of the child is limited to a low level of experience. He knows things but does not know their relation to others or to man. He does not know himself, and in the consequence, he cannot judge others. He is, accordingly, incapable of social and religious experience. It is because of this reason that he cannot comprehend and appreciate the meaning of life. The world of the spirit, morality, art, and philosophy is as yet sealed to him. Nevertheless, these are the interests that raise mankind above the level of the savage. Up to the age of 15 Emile knows nothing of history, morals or society. He can generalize and can comprehend but a few abstractions. With the moral signs of changing mood go patent physical changes. His countenance develops and takes on the imprint of a definite character.

Once the child becomes conscious of his dependence, he becomes obliged to begin a study of his own nature and his relation to others. Discussing education during the period of adolescence, Rousseau wrote, ‘It is at this age that the skilful teacher begins his real function as an observer and philosopher who knows the art of exploring the heart while attempting to mould it.’

First of all is the need of warding off evil passions. Second, Rousseau would now arouse the higher emotions such as friendship, sympathy, gratitude, love justice, goodness and philanthropy. These emotions are to be awakened by the study of the mental, social and moral nature of man. These subjects are not only to be studied indirectly through books, but to be experienced in life.

The true work of education is the inner emergence, growth, exercise and the integration of the feelings, sentiments and the passions. It is not so much the outer discovery, or observation of reality, as the evolution of inner feelings which invest outer phenomena with meaning, use and value.

The awakening of inner feelings must precede the attributing of these feelings to outer causes. It is with this inner development and integration, that the world of spirit, morality, duty, art, religion, and philosophy dawns. Rousseau believed that it is this inner unfolding and enrichment of experience which has raised civilization above the level of a savage.

Stage 5: Adulthood (20-25). In Book V, the adult Émile is introduced to his ideal partner, Sophie. He learns about love, and is ready to return to society, proof, Rousseau hopes, after such a lengthy preparation, against its corrupting influences. The final task of the tutor is to ‘instruct the young couple in their marital rights and duties’ (Boyd 1956: 130).

Education Of Woman: Sophie, this last book includes a substantial section concerning the education of woman. Emile has now become a man, and a life companion must be found for him.

It is the weakest part of the book, because Rousseau completely abandons the individualistic training that is given to the man.

The whole education of women ought to be relative to men. To please them, to be useful to them, to make themselves honoured and loved by them, to educate them when young, to care for them when grown, to console them, to make life agreeable and sweet to them – these are the duties of women at all times, and what should taught them from infancy. (Graves 96). Sophie’s training for womanhood upto the age of ten involves physical training for grace; the dressing of dolls leading to drawing, writing, counting and reading; and the prevention of idleness and indocility. After the age of ten there is a concern with adornment and the arts of pleasing; religion; and the training of reason. ‘She has been trained careful rather than strictly, and her taste has been followed rather than thwarted’ (Everyman edn: 356). Rousseau then goes on to sum her qualities as a result of this schooling (356-362).

Like men, women should be given adequate bodily training, but rather for the sake of physical charms and of producing vigorous offspring than for their own development. Their instinctive love of pleasing through dress should be made of service by teaching them sewing, embroidery, lace-work, and designing. Further, girls ought to  be obedient and industrious, and they ought to be brought up through constraint. They have to learn to suffer injustices, and to endure the wrongs of their husbands without complaint. Girls had to be taught singing, dancing, and other accomplishments that will make them attractive, without interfering with their submissiveness. They should be instructed dogmatically in religion, at a really very early age. For him, every daughter should have the religion of her mother, and every wife that of her husband. In ethical matters, they should be largely guided by public opinion. A woman should learn to study men. She must learn to penetrate their feelings thought their conversation, their actions, their looks, and their gestures.

Rousseau subscribes to a view that sex differences go deep (and are complementary) – and that education must take account of this. ‘The man should be strong and active; the woman should be weak and passive; he one must have both the power and the will; it is enough that the other should offer little resistance’ (Everyman edn: 322). From this difference comes a contrasting education. They are not to be brought up in ignorance and kept to housework. Nature means them to think, to will, to love to cultivate their minds as well as their persons; she puts these weapons in their hands to make up for their lack of strength and to enable them to direct the strength of men.

Thus, we see that the education of the boy begins with radical naturalism and individualism, but ends by evolving a romantic idealist. The education of the girl, however, remains hopelessly traditional.

This strange denial of independent personality to women can only be explained on the ground that Rousseau had no contact with women of character and his conception of human personality was not broad enough to include the female virtues. This is why he ends with an anticlimax.

Plant and your spouse plants with you; weed and you weed alone.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D.

Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed.

Former Principal, A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

The philosophy of the school room in one generation will be the philosophy of government in the next.
Abraham Lincoln

The word ‘school’ has been derived from the Latin word ‘Skhole’ which means ‘leisure’. Basically school is an active and formal agency of education. School is a miniature society .School is an organized institution through which the education is imparted to the learner.

In real sense the school is an idealized epitome of social life. School is a place which consensus and promotes culture and civilization prepares children for citizenship.

The school aims at the harmonious development of the child. Physical, mental, emotional, social, aesthetic, moral and spiritual all aspects are well looked after by the school through its curricular and co-curricular activities. The school helps in the all-round development of the individual.

The higher values of life such as justice, honesty, truth, goodness, beauty are cultivated by the school in its students. In the absence of moral and spiritual values the society would face serious problems. The school tries to develop these higher moral and spiritual values in the children.

In the primitive societies family was the basic unit to transmit cultural heritage to younger generations, but when cultural heritage was gathered to an extent that it could no longer be provided by the family, the school was established. The  school, therefore has been entrusted with the responsibility of transmission of culture to the younger generation. School transmits the cultural values of the society to the pupils and helps in the enrichment of culture..

Socialization means helping the child to acquire the culture of his social group, or society so that he can learn to adjust socially. The school does this job by providing opportunities for co-operation and competition, both. The school develops a sense of rights and duties of the citizens.

In countries where there is much disintegration due to provincialism, linguistic differences, religions etc. the school play a vital role in creating a sense of national unity by  Informal Social Interaction . Opportunities for informal social interaction between children of various social groups have provided. The school are able to identity talented persons and give them training for leadership in various walks of life.

The modern school system prepares the child for getting a vocation or profession after he completes the course. The school has to give vocational training according to the needs of the society and abilities of the individuals.

The school helps in post school adjustability by helping the children to grow physically and mentally fit and socially well adjusted. In the words of .The school has a direct responsibility of preparing the individual child for post-school adjustment.

To philosophize concerning aims in a social sense, and not just in terms of what the school should do for the individual, is to ask for a rational for the school as an institution. This is not uncommon theme in the literature of educational philosophy.

Idealism –  Concept of School

Idealism believes in refined wisdom. It is based on the view that reality is a world within a person’s mind. It believes that truth is in the consistency of ideas and that goodness is an ideal state to strive to attain.

As a result, schools exist to sharpen the mind and intellectual processes. Students are taught the wisdom of past heroes.

Plato in the ‘Republic’ considered, at least speculatively, the possibility of taking children away from the corrupt society which had given them birth  and in some separate place by means of an expurgated literature giving mankind a fresh start through a proper education, and also there by building an ideal state.

School is a place where the capacities of logical thinking, reasoning and evaluating of the child are progressively sublimated and developed by teachers and the school environment into desirable channels so that high spiritual ideals and values are gained. Such noble mission, according to Idealism may be achieved through proper guidance of teacher given in school. Hence, Idealists considered school and its impressionistic environment as greatly essential

The environment is structured and regimented. There is no emphasis on the social and affective dimension of the learner. Authoritarianism permeates the climate of the school.

Naturalism- Concept of School

What institution shall train a child? Is education a public or a family function? These were some of the doubts that were raised during Rousseau’s time. For Rousseau both were important depending on the needs involved. Both systems were designed to t preserve those fundamental virtues which constituted the supreme end of life and the chief good of the state. “They are both cooperating factors in a small state, and through both the common life, habits, and sentiments are communicated to the young. Both unite in developing equality, fraternity, simplicity, liberty, and all the other virtue.

Naturalist believed that the parent’s role is very important in the child’s education, one should have schools ( formalized institutions) whose very existence is rooted in nature. The period of infancy of the human species, is greatly prolonged as compare to animals, and thereby demands extended training which the parents usually are not able to provide. Consequently, it is quite “natural” for man to create institutions which will enable him to learn the manifold habits, skills, and knowledge necessary to live a full human life.

Pestalozzi and Spencer recognized this and accepted the school as one of the fundamental agencies. Pestalozzi conducted his “natural education” within the setting of the boarding school. Spencer too, placed upon the formalized school the responsibility for educating the “whole child”. He disclaimed the view , accepted at his time, that the school’s primary job consists in nourishing the mind. Spencer’s recommendation that school assume responsibility for health and physical education, vocational and social education, as well intellectual training, seems to indicate  that he makes the school the primary educational agency.

Furthermore ,Spencer’s religious agnosticism aligns him with the complete secularization of the school , relegating to the Church little or no educative function. The rise of the modern secular school, might be traced in part to the influence of the great naturalists, especially Rousseaue and Spencer.

Realism- Concept of School

Realism believes in the world as it is. It is based on the view that reality is what we observe. It believes that truth is what we sense and observe and that goodness is found in the order of the laws of nature.

As a result, schools exist to reveal the order of the world and universe. Students are taught factual information.

John Amos Comenius in his great didactic describes the unique function of the school in a manner which will symbolize modern realism. He said that man is not made a man only by his biological birth. If he is to be made a man. Human culture must give direction and form to his basic potentialities. This necessity of the school for the making of man was made vivid for Comenius by reports which had come to him of children who had been reared from infancy by animals. The recognition of this by Comenius caused him to consider the education of men by men just as essential to man birth, as a human creature, as is procreation. He therefore defined education as formation and went so far as to call the school ‘a true forging place of man’

Thus, the realism has brought great effect in various fields of education. The aims, the curriculum, the methods of teaching the outlook towards the child, the teachers, the discipline and the system of education all were given new blood. Realism in education dragged the education from the old traditions, idealism and the high and low tides to the real surface.

From this very general philosophical position, the Realist would tend to view the Learner as a sense mechanism, the Teacher as a demonstrator, the Curriculum as the subject matter of the physical world (emphasizing mathematics, science, etc.), the Teaching Method as mastering facts and information, and the Social Policy of the school as transmitting the settled knowledge of Western civilization.

Existentialism – Concept of School

Existentialism believes in the personal interpretation of the world. It is based on the view that the individual defines reality, truth and goodness.

As a result, schools exist to aid children in knowing themselves and their place in society.Students learn what they want and discuss subjects freely.

The school should provide an atmosphere where the individuals develop in a healthy way. Any subject in school (even extra activities like athletics, music etc.) can present existential situations for teaching and the development of human beings. The aim of school tasks should be to nurture self-discipline and cultivate self-evaluation.

Mass teaching and mass testing is not advocated in schools. The schedule must be flexible and open. Democratic ideals should pervade the school. Democracy must be the soil in which the individual grows. It should be the democracy of unique individuals who value differences and respect one another. Self-government, pupil participation in planning and the encouragement of a free atmosphere characterize the school.

Mechanization and impersonality should be counteracted in school. Student’s timetables and work programmers are computerized. And thus the relationships between the individual students and the school programmed become an impersonal one. Besides this, the use of programmed instruction, teaching machines and other equipments tend to decrease the personal contact between teachers and pupils. This impersonality is a hazard to the individual development and growth of the child’s personality. Concern and respect for the individual student should be a feature of the school.

Nietzsche’s attack on public education is based upon his conviction that the public schools in his country destroyed individual freedom and responsibility and replaced them with a state-enforced conformity. Since mass education has been initiated by the state or in some instances by the Church, many existentialists feel that both of these organizations have overstepped their bounds. Nietzsche rightly comments “But who will persuade me that today’s (public) school have an absolute right to their existence? … I am not convinced that in itself the school is necessarily a good thing. It is at best a benevolent, well meaning concentration camp. It denies in its actual make up the very emancipation and enfranchisement of youth that it is established to cherish…. Deny, if you can, the dreadful similarity between the mass education of children in a school and the mass production of goods in a factory. ‘”.

Certainly, the atheistic existentialist has an additional reason for denying the rights of the Church in educational matters, since he considers the entire theological-administrative structure of the churches as a grand and fraudulent imposition on the individual’s freedom of choice and action. Such misuse of education can only be resisted by the existentialist.

The family, too, should not be considered the chief agency of education. The authoritarian structure of families has crushed the individuality of the young. Simply because the parents have provided the biological components of the child, they are not entitled to dictate what the child shall make of himself.

Consequently, we are left with only one conclusion: the individual is the sole “agency “of education. The family, Church, and state should provide an atmosphere conducive to the individual’s creation of his own essence. Their only role in the educative process in an auxiliary one – a service role. These agencies should cooperate in “freeing the individual” from the artificial restraints of organized society so that he will be able to choose and act as he wishes.

Humanism Concept of School

Humanism believes that things are constantly changing. It is based on the view that reality is what you experience. It believes that truth is what works right now and that goodness comes from group decisions.

As a result, schools exist to discover and expand the society we live in. Students study social experiences and solve problems.

During the medieval period and for many centuries prior to it, the family and church were the primary educational agencies. Public educating passed out of the educational scene with the collapse of the Roman empire. During the Dark Ages education was kept alive only in the monastic schools.

At the height of the Renaissance many schools flourished under private auspices, usually that of a scholar.. Also there were many schools in the court of the nobles and aristocracy. The complete break with church-controlled education came with the Reformation.

The reformers maintained that education was a state function. Thus, one finds the first completely independent public school system in the Protestant district of Wurtemberg, Germany about the middle of the sixteenth century.

Humanism regarded education as equal to physical procreation as a necessity in making man. He had come across reports of instances in which human infants have been reared by animals and as a result followed a pattern of life closer to that of the animals with which they have lived than to human patterns. They  argued therefore that the culture of man had to give form to the human potentialities with which we are born, in order for us to be men. And this is the task of education. This is why they characterized education as “a true forging place of men”.

Perennialism Concept of School

This is a very conservative and inflexible philosophy of education. It is based on the view that reality comes from fundamental fixed truths-especially related to God. It believes that people find truth through reasoning and revelation and that goodness is found in rational thinking.

As a result, schools exist to teach reason and God’s will. Students are taught to reason through structured lessons and drills.

The ecclesiastical perennialists see the school as concerned wit the secular in education and particularly the training of the intellect. But in addition to this they see a second aim carefully interwoven through the fabric of education. They view education as a moral and religious undertaking. The ecclesiastical perennialists believe that the school cannot separate itself from the study of those things that have come to man through faith and revelation. Thus, the Roman Catholic Church in America has continued to maintain a separate school system so that it might permeates its “secular” teachings with its moral and religious convictions. If we were to sum up the whole educational aim of the ecclesiastical perennialists in one sentence it would be, “Catholic,” and it is at this that the Catholic parochial schools from kindergarten through graduate school aim.

They believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to be transmitted to students in a systematic, disciplined way. The emphasis in this conservative perspective is on intellectual and moral standards that schools should teach. The core of the curriculum is essential knowledge and skills and academic rigor.  Schooling should be practical, preparing students to become valuable members of society. It should focus on facts-the objective reality out there–and “the basics,” training students to read, write, speak, and compute clearly and logically. Schools should not try to set or influence policies

Pragmatism- Concept of School

Pragmatism sees the school as vitally concerned with and interested in social change since it needs to prepare the adults of the future to deal with the planning necessarily involved in the process called society.

John Dewey, has argued that the school exists to provide a special environment for the formative years of human life. Such a special environment is needed in past because civilization is too complex to provide an economic setting for learning. A special environment such as the school can also eliminate the unworthy features of human society as it is. And further the school as special environment can provide a balance of influence which society itself will not give, providing greater breadth from other cultures and avoiding parochialism.

With the move from the rural agrarian social structure which existed before the turn of the century, and with the increase in urbanization, transportation, communication and industrialization, over the last 50 years, the need for social planning has increased at an unbelievable rate. With the growth of new problems such the uses of atomic energy, pollution, conservation of natural resources, other space, drugs, increasing crime rates, education of disadvantaged children, others too numerous to list , the school has become the seed-bed for society. Never before argue the pragmatists, has there been such a need for social concern and social planning. Simply let society run rampant down an unplanned path. To do this is court destruction not just for society, but for the world.

For school  the idea that there are no absolute and unchanging truths offers another dangerous challenge that many feel unable or unwilling to accept. Traditionally the school has been viewed as society’s instrument for the preservation and continuation of our cultural heritage. While the pragmatists would not argue with this, they would carry it a step further. The school and the whole process of education should be an instrument of social change and social improvement. Not only should students be taught  (and even here the pragmatists would probably prefer to say “not only should students be helped to learn….”) factual materials, they should deal with social problems. More conservative schoolmen will argue that this is not the function of the school and that if the school and the classroom become instrument of inquiry and of social change, we are moving away from stability and toward anarchy.

Analytical Philosophy- Concept of School

The analysts have done little work on this aspect of education. There is enough room for some. For example, if the right of the state to conduct schools be asserted, who for this purpose is the state? Do we means bye this the something’s as if we assert the right of the government to conduct schools? Again what determines whether a school is religious minority school? Is clerical control essential, or is the official purpose of the institution definitive? Still again we have not always distinguished between the obligation of church to teach and her obligation to conduct schools and colleges. The first pertains to her essence; the second depends upon circumstances. In some situations, the church could accomplish her educational responsibilities through state schools or perhaps even though some medium which human imagination has not yet conceived.

Marxism – Concept of School

In order to destroy the influence of the family in the education of children, state-sponsored nursery schools were established as rapidly as possible. When a child was three years old he was placed in these nursery schools so that he could be given the “proper start” in his educational career and so that his mother could participate in productive labor and the political life of the nation. These nursery schools assumed the responsibility of the family in providing food, shelter, exercise, and the general physical development of the child. Character development, training of the will, and early intellectual development were given high priority in these preschool years. Habits of cleanliness, respect for his own belongings and for public property are coupled with training in cooperative activities with his fellow pupils. The whole program is designed to make the child a more effective member of the collective.

Although it is not possible for all children to be placed in nursery schools and kindergartens, great efforts are expended to enrol as many as possible. Special attention is given to those children who might be turned against the Soviet state by parents who do not sympathize with the revolution. And once the child enrols in the first grade his working hours are largely under the control of the school and communist youth groups.

With the family and the Church “out of the show” the state has a free hand in designing an educational program to serve its needs. The centralization of educational power in the state is absolute. “School are opened, approved and run by the state

Some countries have centralized control of education. But this control is in the hands of educators. In the Communist countries, the party leaders decree what the schools shall teach it, and how it shall be taught. Centres for educational research exist, but their findings can be applied in the schools only when they are approved by party authorities. The only criterion applied to such research regarding its acceptability is whether or not it serves the needs of the state and is in harmony with Marxist ideology.

I was a smart kid, but I hated school.
Eminem

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D.

Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed.

Former Principal,A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

The most dangerous creation of any society is the man who has nothing to lose.

James A. Baldwin
It is possible that philosophy is not a well-defined discipline. But philosophies  regard themselves as having something of a method, and something of a subject matter. The method, for analytically  philosophies, anyway, is based on careful, critical analysis of ideas, concepts, and statements, and an effort to arrive at developed philosophical theories of important subjects: justice, rationality, equality, relativism, social construction.  The subject matter is a little harder to specify. But there is an open-ended set of subjects that have drawn philosophers’ attention for the past several hundred years: empirical knowledge, , the nature of the mind, moral truth, political justice, and the foundations of religious belief, for example.

One clear area of intersection is the philosophy of “knowledge of society” — the philosophy of social science.
Another area where philosophy is relevant to society is normative social philosophy — the theory of justice, human well-being, or community oriented /liberalism, for example. Here the philosophies brings some organized thinking about values, ethical theory, and the messy facts of human social arrangements into the discussion. Here again, it is fairly clear how rigorous philosophical thinking can illuminate these questions; philosophy can help our understanding of these issues to progress.

But in addition to these fairly clear examples of philosophy about society, there seems to be another domain of intersection between philosophy and society that isn’t as well charted. This is “empirically and historically informed study of social metaphysics.

Idealism- concept of Society

Plato described a utopian society in which “education to body and soul all the beauty and perfection of which they are capable” as an ideal.

Plato believed in the importance of state involvement in education and in moving individuals from concrete to abstract thinking. He believed that individual differences exist and that outstanding people should be rewarded for their knowledge. With this thinking came the view that girls and boys should have equal opportunities for education.  In Plato’s society there were three social classes of education; workers, military personnel, and rulers. He believed that the ruler or king would be a good person with much wisdom because it was only ignorance that led to evil.

The idealist relies for much of his social view on the accumulate wisdom of the past. Particularly that wisdom which is either symbolic of/or representative of, the Ideal. In general, therefore, the idealist stresses an intellectual pattern for conservation of the cultural heritage. This is a conservative position, typical of any system based on the belief that reality has a coercive order of its own and that we must wait to progress until we have this order made clear to us.

Realism- Concept of Society

From the foregoing, it should now be apparent that the social position of this philosophy would closely approximate that of idealism. Since the concern of this position is with the known, and with the transmission of the known, it tends to focus on the conservation of the cultural heritage. This heritage is viewed as all those things that man has learned about natural laws and the order of the universe over untold centuries. The realist position sees society as operating in the framework of natural law. As man understands the natural law, he will understand society.

Since the laws of nature cannot be change, or even amended, society must function in a particular way. All man can do is serve as a spectator of the society excerpt where he as an individual fits into the jigsaw puzzle order of natural law and become a participant. Basically, however, man serves to pass on what is know to be true knowledge of the immutable laws operating in the moral, economic, and scientific realms.

Pragmatism- concept of society

For the pragmatist, society is a process in which individuals participate. Society is the source from which people derive all that makes them individual while at the same time society is a product of the complex series of interactions among the individuals whose lives and activities impinge upon each other.

Man derives his values from the society and since these values help determine much of what his life will be, society and its relationship to the individual may be one of the most important concerns for contemporary pragmatists. Society is a basic concept in contemporary pragmatism since all actions must be considered in the light of their social designed to pass along the cultural heritage from one generation to the next, must be concerned with society and with its students as members of society.

Pragmatism sees the school as vitally concerned with and interested in social change since it needs to prepare the adults of the future to deal with the planning necessarily involved in the process called society.

With the move from the rural agrarian social structure which existed before the turn of the century, and with the increase in urbanization, transportation, communication and industrialization, over the last 50 years, the need for social planning has increased at an unbelievable rate. With the growth of new problems such the uses of atomic energy, pollution, conservation of natural resources, other space, drugs, increasing crime rates, education of disadvantaged children, others too numerous to list , the school has become the seed-bed for society. Never before argue the pragmatists, has there been such a need for social concern and social planning. Simply let society run rampant down an unplanned path. To do this is court destruction not just for society. But for the world.

Since the pragmatic position strongly advocates wholehearted involvement in society by all citizens, and because it views group decision in the light of consequence as important, and because it places responsibility on the individual as a member of society, it has been called the philosophy of Democracy.

Humanism- Concept of Society

Humans evolved as social animals, which is the only reason humanity has developed culture and civilization, and now in fact depends on them. This means that even in the neutral terms of differential reproductive success, humanity’s future as a species depends on developing and maintaining a healthy and productive culture and civilization. Any behavior contrary to that end threatens humanity’s survival and the survival of one’s neighbors, kin, and descendants. Likewise, this means humans have been “designed” by blind natural forces to require a healthy society in order to flourish and feel happy and content. Therefore the pursuit of human happiness requires the pursuit of a healthy society so people can live in it, interact with it, and benefit from it.

Humanism is in tune with today’s enlightened social thought. Humanists are committed to civil liberties, human rights, church-state separation, the extension of participatory democracy not only in government but in the workplace and education, an expansion of global consciousness and exchange of products and ideas internationally, and an open-ended approach to solving social problems, an approach that allows for the testing of new alternatives.

Humanism is, in sum, a philosophy for those in love with life. Humanists take responsibility for their own lives and relish the adventure of being part of new discoveries, seeking new knowledge, exploring new options. Instead of finding solace in prefabricated answers to the great questions of life, Humanists enjoy the open-endedness of a quest and the freedom of discovery that this entails.

The Humanist Manifesto goes on to state, “we can discover no divine purpose or providence for the human species. While there is much that we do not know, humans are responsible for what we are or will become. No deity will save us; we must save ourselves.”

According to them, if there is a benevolent God supervising humanity, then why is it that a majority of the human population is in the throes of misery and suffering? If there is a just God above us, then why is there so much injustice on the earth, against the poor and deprived sections of society?”

And humanism has a firm position on ethics. “Moral values derive their source from human experience. Ethics is autonomous and situational.” In other words, morals are not derived from absolutes given by God, but are determined by the individual from situation to situation. By and large, the humanists deplore any reference to them as being “religious.”.

Naturalism- concept of society

Society is therefore considered less organic in naturalism than in pragmatism, as well as in idealism. It is an aspect or portion of Nature, not so much an organism that has rhythms and patterns which, while not contrary to or above Nature, are yet its won rhythms and patterns. Individual man is therefore considered as Nature’s offspring, not a child of society or a segment of society whose very being depends upon the social organism. Although dependent upon Nature, he stands on his own feet, more or less, as far as his relations to society are concerned. There are what might be called certain necessities which make it expedient for him to relate himself somewhat effectively socially; but these are not necessities arising from the operation of society as an organism, so much as they are accidents or exigencies to be avoided by working out some kind of social organization to correct them.

Rousseau’s naturalism rooted man in Nature rather than society. So much did he regard man as a child of Nature, as over against society, that he proposed in his Emile to keep Emile away from society until adolescences. In  his Social Contract he reveals how the problem of social organization is complicated by the importance of the freedom of man. Individual man, he contended, is not a man unless he is free; if he is in bondage, he is less than a man. Yet unbridled freedom is neither in harmony with his own welfare not the welfare of society. Evidently some social organization is needed, but one which preserves for man his freedom. This is a rather big order, but one which can be filled rather satisfactorily by democracy. For in democracy, although individual man sacrifices his own individual freedom by participation in the decisions which determine what the will of the state is to be.

It would seem that for naturalism social values are synthetic values which result from agreements in which individual men bind themselves together. They are secondary goods, not so much preferred as individual goods, which result indirectly as a consequence of the desire to avoid the grater evils which accompany anarchy. They are not organic values which are determined in part by the very nature of society and which would never be possessed by individual men separately, even if they did not need to be saved from conflict and chaos by some kind of social organization

Existentialism – concept of  Society

Existentialistic ideas came out of a time in society when there was a deep sense of despair following the Great Depression and World War II. There was a spirit of optimism in society that was destroyed by World War I and its mid-century calamities. This despair has been articulated by existentialist philosophers well into the 1970s and continues on to this day as a popular way of thinking and reasoning (with the freedom to choose one’s preferred moral belief system and lifestyle).

Each basically agrees that human life is in no way complete and fully satisfying because of suffering and losses that occur when considering the lack of perfection, power, and control one has over their life. Even though they do agree that life is not optimally satisfying, it nonetheless has meaning. Existentialism is the search and journey for true self and true personal meaning in life.

Most importantly, it is the arbitrary act that existentialism finds most objectionable-that is, when someone or society tries to impose or demand that their beliefs, values, or rules be faithfully accepted and obeyed. Existentialists believe this destroys individualism and makes a person become whatever the people in power desire thus they are dehumanized and reduced to being an object. Existentialism then stresses that a person’s judgment is the determining factor for what is to be believed rather than by arbitrary religious or secular world values.

Perennialism – concept of society

Theperennialists, despite their claims tothe contrary, are advocates of a regressivephilosophy. Theywould have us solve our presentcentury problems  by turning back the clock to a system of beliefs prevalent in the thirteenth century. They would have us turned the clock back to a time when the source of authority was to man and when man stood in the very centre of the universe; to a time when, the perennialists would have us believe, man was at amoral and spiritual peak from which he has since declined. The moral, intellectual, and spiritual reaction that the perennialists advocates is seen as coming, of necessity, from the church and the university. The lower schools have little to do with social change, since the school must transcend society and deal with the teaching of first principle, the permanent bases of Eternal Truth which is true in all times and in all places.

It is important to note that for the ecclesiastical perennialist the nature and shape of society, in any positive sense, is less important than the concern for whether or not the Catholic church can continue to exist within that society. Democracy, as we know it ,is, according to McGucken,….considered by church and scholastics as a legally possible government. Not, however the only possible form. The church can adopt itself to any form of government ,except the totalitarian state where the rights of the individual, the  family, and the church are flouted.

Despite McGucken apparent disclaimer, the church has been able to adapt itself to totalitarian form of government where these governments gave their support to the church.

Marxism- concept of society

“The education of all children, from the moment that they can get along without a mother’s care, shall be in state institutions.”

― Karl Marx

In Communist countries the state is regarded as the sole educational agency. The leaders of the revolution recognized that education was the most powerful weapon at their disposal in their efforts to effect the radical change in society. In fact, they viewed education as the only means of transforming an individualistic capitalistic society to a socialistic, classless one. The ultimate aim of education was bluntly stated as “strengthening the state and the building of a classless society.” All other goals are subsidiary to this final one.

In order to destroy the influence of the family in the education of children, state-sponsored nursery schools were established as rapidly as possible. When a child was three years old he was placed in these nursery schools so that he could be given the “proper start” in his educational career and so that his mother could participate in productive labor and the political life of the nation.

Little proof is needed to show that the Church’s influence in education has been negated completely. The Marxist dictum that “religion is the opiate of the people” is the key to the Communist attitude toward any Church involvement in education.

With the family and the Church “out of the show” the state has a free hand in designing an educational program to serve its needs. The centralization of educational power in the state is absolute. “School are opened, approved and run by the state. The state determines the curriculum and methods of instruction to insure that education are in line with Party and State Policy and that it can be planned and directed for the Nation as a whole.” All adult education is state owned and controlled. Even the few seminaries conducted by the Orthodox Church must follow state curricula and methods.

Some countries have centralized control of education. But this control is in the hands of educators. In the Communist countries, the party leaders decree what the schools shall teach it, and how it shall be taught. Centers for educational research exist, but their findings can be applied in the schools only when they are approved by party authorities. The only criterion applied to such research regarding its acceptability is whether or not it serves the needs of the state and is in harmony with Marxist ideology.

In this modern technological age, mass-communication media (radio, television, newspapers, periodicals) can be considered important educational agencies. In the Western democracies a significant amount of political, aesthetic, and intellectual education is carried on by these means. Even when the state owns or controls these media different points of view are presented. But in Communist countries all broadcasts and publications have one basic purpose, the service of the state. The Gordian knot has been tied again by the all-powerful dictatorship of the proletariat: there is only one educational agency, the state.

Society honors its living conformists and its dead troublemakers.

Mignon McLaughlin

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D.

Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed.

Former Principal,A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

There is but one truly serious philosophical problem, and that is suicide. Judging whether life is or is not worth living amounts to answering the fundamental question of philosophy. All the rest — whether or not the world has three dimensions, whether the mind has nine or twelve categories — comes afterward. These are games; one must first answer.

ALBERT CAMUS, An Absurd Reasoning

Something as severe, basic and fundamentally human as suicide probably results from a number of things. Because psychological, sociological and biochemical factors make up people and their subjective, individual realities, all these factors should be considered when theorizing on the causes of suicide.

The manner in which social integration and regulation work can be better seen by examining the four fold classification of suicides that Durkheim developed. Durkheim ends has discussion of the organic-psychic and physical environmental factors by concluding that they can not explain “each social group [s] …. Specific tendency to suicide”. (Suicide, p-145). By eliminating other explanations, Durkheim claims that these tendencies must depend on social causes and must be collective phenomena. The key to each four  type is a social factor, with the degrees of integration and regulation into society being either too high or too low.

Almost all sociologists will agree destruction of a relationship, or two- person group, is often a cause for suicide. Relationship are characteristically fragile, though strongly emotional and personal in nature, Edwin Schneidman, in as essay concerning suicide, described the intense frustration felt when people invest so much of themselves in others, who are also human and trusty flawed, only to be disappointed by destruction of the relationship . Many times a person is so devastated there seems to be no point in living. Aggression is thought to be internalized when people commit suicide, even if it is a result of external forces, such as failed interrelation with others or lack of them all together. Sociologists blame the low number of close, meaningful relationships on the growing depersonalization of society. Krauss states “cultures which provide {close, meaningful and relatively conflict-free interactions among their members} have ….low rates of suicide”. Therefore, from the sociological viewpoint, most relationships fail because society poses threats which destroy these relationships.

Benjamin Wolman, a sociologist who theorized on the “anti-culture” of suicide, blamed estrangement and contemporary societal mechanization and alienation for growing suicide rates. Wolman sums up the sociological standpoint in his statement.The estrangement inherent in our way of life; the decline of family ties; the depersonalization in human relations; and the loss of individual in a mass society are probably the main, or at least the important, reasons why so many people now tend to hurt one another and to hurt themselves .

The ability of people to internalize such aggression and turn it into self-criticism and self-hate is one of the most prominent ties between sociology and psychology. While most psychologists do not hold that society is so exceedingly influential I human development and personal motives, the connection is obviously there. The internalization of society, as it relates to the developing, unique individual, is also an interesting view of reality which Douglas states exceptionally well. He explains society exists within the minds of the individuals who exist within society, and when individuals interact the idea of society becomes an ever-changing “whole” product of this interaction.It exists only in the mind of individuals, but, being more than the mind of any individual or even the mind of all individuals taken together, it exists almost entirely outside the individual and acts upon him as an external force would-even though this force can only exist internally.

This helps relate sociology and psychology and also gives insight into the cause of suicide which is often termed “tunnel vision”. Because people internalize all thoughts, emotions, interpretations of society etc. and because these forces, external and internal, strongly act upon them, they feel there is no way to escape in a conscious or even semi-conscious state. The problem is perpetual.

David Malan, a psychologist, suggests that suicide is the cause of accumulated trauma. Though it sounds extremely simplistic, most psychologists, to a certain degree, concur with this theory. As Dublin explains, many psychiatrists feel suicide is a result of mental and emotional disturbances that are already present and which external circumstances worsen. He details how psychological frameworks are thought to exist and develop as people age, determining how they will react to life’s ups and downs. Rather than outside forces, personality, character, temperament (which is often thought to be inherited and thus biochemical) and emotional stability are all psychological factors. This shows suicide as being a personal reaction, with external forces merely contributing to the final outcomes.

Some views stress personality far more than others, however and the psychological school that seems to have developed the dominant position on suicide is the psychodynamic approach.

Durkheim proposed this definition of suicide: “the term suicide is applied to all cases of death resulting directly or indirectly from a positive or negative act of the victim himself, which he knows will produce this result”. It has long been seen as deviant and so has been studied by sociologists. For example, Durkheim did a study of suicide.

In Durkheim’s study, the dependent variable was the suicide rate. Durkheim believed that social forces would affect the overall suicide rate – these forces became his independent variables. Durkheim’s major independent variables were religious affiliation, marital status, military/civilian status, and economic conditions. Durkheim’s data came from government statistics (secondary data). When Durkheim collected his data he found that suicide was higher among Protestants than Catholics, and lowest among Jews. It was higher among single people than married people and lowest among married people with children. The rate of suicide declined with each additional child a parent had. Suicide was higher among soldiers than among civilians. It was higher for officers than enlisted men, and among enlisted men, it was higher for volunteers than draftees. The suicide rate was higher in times of economic depression and economic booms than during more stable periods.

Durkheim’s main argument was that suicide is not an individual act, as was previously thought by leading scientists of his time. Accordingly, his theory was that suicide was a social fact that was tied to social structures. He defined suicide as a social fact because it was something that happened driven by social causes, however hidden they were.

Durkheim’s analysis led him to identify four distinct patterns of suicide; the three patterns most commonly referred to are egoistic suicide, altruistic suicide and anomic suicide. Thus, Durkheim concluded that the force that determines the rate of suicide is social and related to the amount of integration or regulation in society – too much or too little regulation and too much or too little integration lead to suicide – and as such he rejected both biological (hereditary) and psychological explanations of suicide.

Durkheim then proceeded to theorize three different types of suicide that are found in all societies. These include:

1) “Egoistic suicide, which results from lack of integration of the individual into society.” (Page 14):

According to Durkheim, when a man becomes socially isolated or feels that he has no place in the society he destroys himself. This is the suicide of self-centred person who lacks altruistic feelings and is usually cut off from main stream of the society. : Egoistic suicide happens when people feel totally detached from society. Ordinarily, people are integrated into society by work roles, ties to family and community, and other social bonds. When these bonds are weakened through retirement or loss of family and friends, the likelihood of egoistic suicide increases. Elderly people who lose these ties are the most susceptible to egoistic suicide.

Egoistic suicide is committed by people who aren’t strongly supported by membership in a cohesive social group. As outsiders, they depend more on themselves than on group goals and rules of conduct to sustain them in their lives and, in times of stress, they feel isolated and helpless.

This means that a person is not included in many things that happen in society, they feel unattached, helpless and useless. Due to these feelings of inadequacy, the person takes his of her own life.

2) Altruistic suicide . . . it results from the individual’s taking his own life because of higher commandments.” (Page 15) This type of suicide occurs when individuals and the group are too close and intimate. This kind of suicide results from the over integration of the individual into social proof..

Altruistic suicide is committed by people who are deeply committed to group norms and goals and who see their own lives as unimportant; basically these suicides involved dying for a cause

Altruistic suicide happens when there is excessive regulation of individuals by social forces. An example is someone who commits suicide for the sake of a religious or political cause .People who commit altruistic suicide subordinate themselves to collective expectations, even when death is the result.

Just as “excessive individualism” leads to suicide, “insufficient individualism” also does.Durkheim says that among “primitive” (tribal and non-western) people, suicide is common. In this case, a man or a woman might see it as his/her “duty” to commit suicide. (Such as a wife killing herself when her husband is dead; a man killing himself in old age, etc.) He calls this “altruistic suicide” for the following reason:

“Having designated as ‘egoism’ the condition in which the ego pursues its own life and is obedient only to itself, the designation ‘altruism’ adequately expresses the opposite condition, where the ego is not its own property.”

Durkheim observes that altruistic suicide is unlikely to occur much in modern western society where “individual personality is increasingly freed from the collective personality.”

This means that the individual feels that something larger than himself is causing him to take his own life, such as religious Martyrs or suicide bombers.

3) Anomic suicide :  which results from lack of regulation of the individual by society.” (Page 15) Anomic suicide happens when the disintegrating forces in the society make individuals feel lost or alone. Teenage suicide is usually cited as an example of this type of suicide, as is suicide committed by those who have been sexually abused as children or whose parents are alcoholics.

Anomic suicide is committed by people when society is in crisis or rapid change – in such times customary norms may weaken or break down and, with no clear standards of behaviour to guide them, many people become confused, their usual goals lose meaning, and life seems aimless.

This means that the society is going through some sort of change, where the rules of the society are not as clear as they were. The individual feels confused and does not know how to handle the major changes occurring around him/herself, and thus commits suicide.Suicides increase during times of industrial and financial crises. However, the reason for increased suicide is not poverty.

For Durkheim, “crises of prosperity” (periods of economic growth and prosperity) also lead to increased rate of suicide.This is “because they are [both] crises, in other words, disturbances of the collective order.

Every disturbance of equilibrium, even though it may involve greater comfort and a raising of the general pace of life, provides an impulse to voluntary death.”Society, which exerts a moral power over the individual, has the ability of regulating human needs and desires. But in times of crises (abrupt change of a positive or negative kind), the society becomes incapable of exercising regulation over individuals. It is then that suicides increase. Because when abrupt social change occurs, values and needs change. And it takes time for the reshaping, or regulation of different groups’ needs. Durkheim calls this state anomie.

He argues that in the world of industry and trade, there is a constant state of crisis and anomie. On the one hand religion has lost most of its power, on the other hand, nations have become preoccupied with industrial growth. Industry has become an end in itself, rather than a means to achieve an end. Therefore, he says, the rate of suicide in industrial and trade occupations is high.

Anomie is a regular and specific factor in causing suicide in our modern societies. Anomic suicide is different from the previous two types in that “it does not depend on the way in which individuals are attached to society, but on the way in which they are regulated by society.

Anomie can also be seen in marital relations. Divorce is an expression of this type of anomie, which consists of a weakening of “matrimonial regulation.”

(4) Fatalistic suicide:

This is the opposite of anomic suicide. It results from excessive regulation. Examples are suicides by very young husbands, childless married women, slaves, etc. These suicides are all attributable to excesses of physical or moral despotism. They are people whose futures are blocked and whose passions are suppressed by an oppressive discipline. But Durkheim thinks that this type of suicide is unimportant in modern society.

This type of suicide is due to overregulation in society. Under the overregulation of a society, when a servant or slave commits suicide, when a barren woman commits suicide, it is the example of fatalistic suicide.

Fatalistic suicide, identified by Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), occurring in social conditions where the individual experiences pervasive oppression. Durkheim has defined fatalistic suicide as resulting “from excessive regulation.” Suicide by individuals whose passions are choked by oppressive discipline.

The condition of slavery may make an individual feel that the only way to find escape is suicide. We would call it fatalistic suicide because the individual considers himself condemned by fate or doomed to be a slave. Here, is a fatalistic situation calling for a fatalistic suicide as a solution or escape.

The category of fatalistic suicide was constructed mainly for purposes of symmetry (as contrasted with egoistic suicide) and because it would undercut his central claims about the role of modern urban life as increasing the incidence of suicide, Durkheim could never seriously examine the possibility that social integration could result in suicide.

Fatalistic suicide served as a descriptor for suicides in traditional societies, because Durkheim was faced with the issue that even in societies with abundant social capital, individuals nevertheless killed themselves.

“Fatalistic suicide arises from “excessive regulation” that pitilessly blocks the possibilities of future. Individuals do not want their lives due to the extremely suppressing environment. The suicides of those suffering from mental and physical oppression are closer to fatalistic suicide”.

According to Durkheim, suicide is not an individual act nor a personal action. It is caused by some power which is over and above the individual or super individual. He viewed “all classes of deaths resulting directly or indirectly from the positive or negative acts of the victim itself who knows the result they produce” Having defined the phenomenon Durkheim dismisses the psychological explanation. Many doctors and psychologists develop the theory that majority of people who take their own life are in a pathological state, but Durkheim emphasises that the force, which determines the suicide, is not psychological but social. He concludes that suicide is the result of social disorganisation or lack of social integration or social solidarity.

Critical evaluation of Durkheim’s theory:

Although Durkheim’s theory of suicide has contributed much about the understanding of the phenomenon because of his stress on social rather than on biological or personal factors, the main drawback of the theory is that he has laid too much stress only on one factor, namely social factor and has forgotten or undermined other factors, thereby making his theory defective and only one sided.

Durkheim’s study was useful because it established a specifically sociological view of the individual and it explains different suicide rates in different countries by reference to their fundamental social characteristics. It also emphasises the power of social forces in shaping individual lives. However, it denies the importance of individual choice in the act of suicide and it doesn’t explain why suicidogenic impulses are translated into suicide in some predisposed individuals and not others thus the study may not be that useful. Nonetheless, Durkheim’s starting point was the ‘problem of order’, that is, how do individuals – with all their selfishness – manage to live in

Durkheim’s analysis of suicide shows the manner in which the social as opposed to the psychological and biological can be emphasized and how it results in some useful ways of analyzing the actions of individuals. Suicide rates as expressions of social currents are social facts that affect societies and individuals within those societies. The study of psychology and biology is also useful in attempting to determine individual motives and the manner in which the specific circumstances can lead to an individual deciding to voluntarily end their life. Thus, an analysis of these circumstances should be set within the context of the social currents to which that individual is subject.

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D.

Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Ms. Arunima Maheeshwari, Student

Father Agnel School, NOIDA, India

“Your body isn’t just a body. It’s an ecosystem.”

-  Douglas Coupland

Every living being however small or big depends on the environment for its existence and also competes with others for essentials in life. For survival, living beings form groups and different groups compete with each other for survival.Ecosystem is a functional unit of dynamic system of organisms interacting with each other (biotic) and with the inanimate environment (abiotic). An Ecosystem is defined as a group of plants, animals or living organisms living together and interacting with the physical environment in which they live. An Eco system has a moreor less a closed boundary and the flow of mass in and out of the system is very less as comparedto the internal movement of mass. Ecosystems can be large or small.Any Ecosystem consists of both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components, whichare called Environmental or ecological components. A component is hence an ecological status, which directly or indirectly affects the life of an organism.
Abiotic Components

The physical factors of the environment (which are nonliving) have a major influence onthe life of organisms. The abiotic components are of two types. They are:(a) Climatic factors(b) Edaphic factors(a) Climatic factors consist of Temperature, rainfall and snow, wind, light, humidity etc.The climate of an area is the result of several factors such as latitude, elevation, nearness tothe sea, and monsoon activities and ocean currents.Temperature influences the rates of biochemical reactions in plants, with the reaction rates approximately doubling with every 10°C increase. Plant species require a range of temperature to survive. Below a minimum temperature they are inactive, and above a maximum temperaturebiochemical reactions stop. Normally in many plants growth is possible above 6°C. In areas with extremes of temperature, such as the tundra and tropical deserts the plants have mechanismsto adapt to such conditions.Light levels decide the magnitude of photosynthesis reactions. Different plants have their characteristic light requirements in respect of light intensity, duration and wavelength. Some plants,termed helophytes, require high levels, whereas sciophytes can grow in shady, low light conditions.Rain/Water is an essential factor for biochemical plant processes, including photosynthesis. Plants growing on lands obtain their water requirements from the soil through their roots by the osmosis process. Plants called Hydrophytes grow in fresh water and they cannot withstand drought.Xerophytes survive long periods of drought, and halophytes are able to survive in saline water.Mesophytes require moderate conditions (neither waterlogged nor drought) and are found mainlyin temperate areas.

(b) Edaphic factors or soil factors are pH, mineral and organic matter in soil and textureof soil.
Soil is the major source of nutrients and moisture in almost all the land ecosystems. Soilis formed when a rock weathers .The rocks brake down into a collection of different inorganicor mineral particles. The climate influences the type and rate of the weathering of the rocksas well as the nature of the vegetation growing on it. Nutrients are recycled in the soil by theplants and animals in their life cycles of growth, death and decomposition. Thus humus materialessential to soil fertility is produced.
Soil mineral matter is derived from the weathering of rock material. These consist oftwo types viz. stable primary materials like quartz and various secondary materials like clays andoxides of Al and Fe.
Soil texture is the different size range of mineral particles varying from fine clay to coarsegravel. The varying percentages of each size range produce soils with different characteristics.
Soil organic matter is called humus that is formed by the decomposition of plant andanimal matter. The rate of decay depends upon the nature of the material and the climate. Thehumus produced and incorporated into the soil, is known as clay-humus complexes, which areimportant soil nutrients.
Soil organisms carry out following three main groups of processes. Decomposition of organicmaterial, such as plant and animal parts by bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes and earthworms. Bacteriaand fungi also breakdown soil mineral matter generating nutrients.Transformation and fixation of Nitrogen (which is an essential plant nutrient) obtained throughrainwater or from nitrogen gas in the air. Bacteria like Azobacter and Rhizobium in the root nodulesof leguminous plants, fix nitrogen from the air. Some types of bacteria have the ability to transformpesticides and herbicides into less toxic compounds.
Structural processes are carried out by atinomycetes and fungi. Mineral particles are boundtogether forming larger structures by these organisms. Earthworms, insects and burrowingmammals, such as moles, assist in the improvement of soil porosity resulting in better aerationand water holding ability.Soil Nutrients are obtained from the weathering of rock material, rainwater, fixing of gasesby soil and the decomposition of plant and animal matter. They are available to plants in solutionand in clay humus complexes.Soil pH indicates the level acidity or alkalinity of the soil. pH is the concentration of hydrogenions in the soil. It is measured on a scale from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. Soil profile is the vertical sectional view of the soil. Soil consists of a series of layers,or horizons, produced by the vertical movement of soil materials. Generally soil profile consistsof four horizons.Biotic Components
The live component of an ecosystem comprises plants, animals, and microorganisms (Bacteriaand Fungi). They carry out different functions and based on their role they are classified intothree main groups. They are:(1) Producers(2) Consumers(3) Decomposers
Producers are mainly green plants having chlorophyll. They produce carbohydrates byphotosynthesis process. In effect the plants convert solar energy into chemical energy using waterand carbon di oxide. These are called Autotrophs (self-feeder) since they produce their own food.Part of the food produced by the autotrophs are utilized for their own consumption for survivaland growth while the remaining is stored in the plant parts for future consumption. This becomesthe food for other biotic components in the environment.
Consumers are living things, which do not have chlorophyll, and hence they are unableto produce their own food. They rely on the producers for their food requirements. Consumersare called Heterotrophs. Consumers are classified into four categories. They are
Primary Consumers or Herbivores: They are also called first order consumers. They eatthe producers or plants. Examples are cattle like cow and goat, deer, rabbit etc.
Secondary Consumers or Primary Carnivores: They are also called second orderconsumers. They eat herbivores Examples are snakes, cats foxes etc.
Tertiary Consumers: They are also called third order consumers. They feed on secondaryconsumers. They are large Carnivores. Example is Wolf.
Quaternary Consumers: They are also called fourth order consumers. They feed onsecondary consumers. They are very large Carnivores and feed on tertiary consumers and arenot consumed by other animals. Examples are lions and tigers.
Decomposers called, as Saprotrophs are mainly microorganisms like Bacteria and Fungi. Thedead organic materials of producers and consumers are their food. They break down the organicmatter into simple compounds during their metabolic process. These simple compounds arenutrients, which are absorbed by the producers thus completing a cyclic exchange matter betweenthe biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystem.
Energy flow in Ecosystems
The sun is the source of all our energy. It is a continuously exploding hydrogen bombwhere hydrogen is converted to helium with the release of energy. This energy is mostly in theregion of 0.2 to 4 mm (Ultraviolet to Infra-Red). Around 50% of the radiation is in the visiblerange. The energy reaches the earth at a constant rate called the Solar Flux or Solar Constant,which is the amount of radiant energy crossing unit area in unit time? This value is approximately1.4 KJ per sq. meter per second.
Chlorophyll bearing plants convert this energy from the sun into carbohydrates and sugarsusing carbon di oxide and water. This process is known as Photosynthesis. The generalized formof the photosynthetic reaction isCarbon dioxide + water —® glucose + oxygen + water
The carbohydrates produced by photosynthesis undergo further modifications such asproduction of proteins and nucleic acids by combining with nitrogen, phosphorous and sulphur.Starch polymerizes to cellulose.
The sun’s energy thus enters the living beings through photosynthetic reactions and is passedfrom one organism to another in the form of food. The flow of energy is one directional andis governed by the thermodynamic law that states that Energy is neither created nor destroyedand can transform into different forms.When energy travels from producers to different levels of consumers in an ecosystem thereis loss at each level due to the energy dissipated as heat during the metabolic processes of theorganisms. Hence as we move step by step away from the primary producers the amount ofavailable energy decreases rapidly. Hence only 3 to 5 feeding levels are possible. These are referredto as Tropic levels.
Food Chain and Food WebThe food chain is an ideal model of flow of energy in the ecosystem. According to thisscheme the plants or producers are eaten by only the primary consumers, primary consumersare eaten by only the secondary consumers and so on. The producers are called Autotrophs.A food chain has three main tropic levels viz. Producers, consumers and Decomposers. The energyefficiency of each tropic level is very low. Hence shorter the food chain greater will be the availabilityof food.
A typical food chain in a field ecosystem might be

Grass —® Grasshopper —® Mouse —® Snake —® Hawk
Food webs are more complex and are interlinked at different trophic levels. This meansthose organisms have more than one alternative for food and hence survivability is better. Hawksdon’t limit their food to snakes, snakes eat things other than mice, mice eat grass as well asgrasshoppers and so on. A more realistic depiction of eating habits in an eco system is calleda food web
As energy flows through the ecosystem there is also a constant flow of matter. Living beingstake up several nutrients from their abiotic environment and when they die they are returnedto the environment. This cyclic movement of nutrient material between the biotic and abioticenvironment is called Biogeochemical Cycle. These cycles depict the material movement andtheir conservation.
The most important and common biogeochemical cycles are:(1) Water Cycle or Hydrological Cycle(2) Carbon Cycle(3) Nitrogen Cycle(4) Oxygen Cycle(5) Sulphur Cycle(6) Phosphorous Cycle.
Water Cycle or Hydrological CycleThe water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle or the H2O cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. The mass water on Earth remains fairly constant over time but the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of ice, fresh water, saline water and atmospheric water is variable depending on a wide range of climatic variables. The water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere, by the physical processes ofevaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and subsurface flow. In so doing, the water goes through different phases: liquid, solid (ice), and gas (vapour).
There is a constant and continuous exchange of water between air, land, sea and livingbeings. Considerable part of the solar energy incident on the earth is used for the massive evaporation of water from the oceans, seas and other exposed water bodies leading to cloud formation and precipitation in the form of rainfall or snow. This is the major source of fresh water for the living beings. Surface water run off results in part of fresh water returning to the sea throughrivers and streams. Underground water or simply Ground water is replenished by surfaceAccumulated water from precipitation. Ground water depletion takes place due to exploitation ofthe same by pumping. The plants also absorb ground water. Thus hydrological cycle hence isthe continuous and balanced process of evaporation, precipitation, transpiration and runoff of water.
In short Water cycle can be summarise like this

Carbon Cycle
All living things are made of carbon. Carbon is also a part of the ocean, air, and even rocks. Because the Earth is a dynamic place, carbon does not stay still. It is on the move!The Carbon Cycle is a complex series of processes through which all of the carbon atoms in existence rotate. The same carbon atoms in your body today have been used in countless other molecules since time began. The wood burned just a few decades ago could have produced carbon dioxide which through photosynthesis became part of a plant. When you eat that plant, the same carbon from the wood which was burnt can become part of you. The carbon cycle is the great natural recycler of carbon atoms. Unfortunately, the extent of its importance is rarely stressed enough. Without the proper functioning of the carbon cycle, every aspect of life could be changed dramatically.We believe that it’s vital to understand how the carbon cycle works in order to see the danger of it not working. Therefore, let’s look at a sample carbon cycle and explore how carbon atoms move through our natural world. Plants, animals, and soil interact to make up the basic cycles of nature. In the carbon cycle, plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and use it, combined with water they get from the soil, to make the substances they need for growth. The process of photosynthesis incorporates the carbon atoms from carbon dioxide into sugars. Animals, such as the rabbit, eat the plants and use the carbon to build their own tissues. Other animals, such as the fox, eat the rabbit and then use the carbon for their own needs. These animals return carbon dioxide into the air when they breathe, and when they die, since the carbon is returned to the soil during decomposition. The carbon atoms in soil may then be used in a new plant or small microorganisms. Ultimately, the same carbon atom can move through many organisms and even end in the same place where it began.
In short Carbon cycle can be summarised like this.
Nitrogen Cycle

The nitrogen cycle is the process by which nitrogen is converted between its various chemical forms. This transformation can be carried out through both biological and physical processes. Important processes in the nitrogen cycle include fixation, ammonification, nitrification, and de-nitrification
Nitrogen and its compounds form a vital ingredient in all forms of life in the biosphere.Availability of Nitrogen is from the atmosphere as molecular Nitrogen in the gaseous form, whichcannot be directly absorbed by the plants or producers. In order to be absorbed by the plantsit has to be converted into water-soluble compounds with elements like Hydrogen, Carbon, andoxygen. This process is known as Fixation of Nitrogen. Nitrogen fixation takes place by Bacteria,Algae and electrical storms. Synthetic fixation of Nitrogen is done by the manufacture of nitrogenousfertilizers through ammonia conversion route. The plants absorb the fixed Nitrogen from the soiland convert them into proteins and other compounds during the metabolic process. Decomposers,ammonifying bacteria and Nitrate bacteria also help in the fixing process by converting dead animaland plant parts into absorbable nitrates. The denitrifying bacteria complete the cycle, which helpsin releasing gaseous Nitrogen back to the atmosphere from the soil.
In short Nitrogen cycle can be summarised like this:-

Oxygen Cycle
The oxygen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of oxygen within its three main reservoirs: the atmosphere (air), the total content of biological matter within the biosphere (the global sum of all ecosystems), and the lithosphere (Earth’s crust).
Oxygen is essential for the existence of all flora and fauna. The source of Oxygen is Atmosphere

The atmosphere is actually the smallest source of oxygen on Earth comprising only 0.35% of the Earth’s total oxygen. The smallest comes from biospheres. The largest is as mentioned before in the Earth’s crust. The Oxygen cycle is how oxygen is fixed for freed in each of these major regions.The oxygen cycle is the cycle that helps move oxygen through the three main regions of the Earth, the Atmosphere, the Biosphere, and the Lithosphere. The Atmosphere is of course the region of gases that lies above the Earth’s surface and it is one of the largest reservoirs of free oxygen on earth. The Biosphere is the sum of all the Earth’s ecosystems. This also has some free oxygen produced from photosynthesis and other life processes. The largest reservoir of oxygen is the lithosphere. Most of this oxygen is not on its own or free moving but part of chemical compounds such as silicates and oxides.In the atmosphere Oxygen is freed by the process called photolysis. This is when high energy sunlight breaks apart oxygen bearing molecules to produce free oxygen. One of the most well known photolysis it the ozone cycle. O2 oxygen molecule is broken down to atomic oxygen by the ultra violet radiation of sunlight. This free oxygen then recombines with existing O2 molecules to make O3 or ozone. This cycle is important because it helps to shield the Earth from the majority of harmful ultra violet radiation turning it to harmless heat before it reaches the Earth’s surface.In the biosphere the main cycles are respiration and photosynthesis. Respiration is when animals and humans breathe consuming oxygen to be used in metabolic process and exhaling carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis is the reverse of this process and is mainly done by plants and plankton.The lithosphere mostly fixes oxygen in minerals such as silicates and oxides. Most of the time the process is automatic all it takes is a pure form of an element coming in contact with oxygen such as what happens when iron rusts. A portion of oxygen is freed by chemical weathering. When an oxygen bearing mineral is exposed to the elements a chemical reaction occurs that wears it down and in the process produces free oxygen. These are the main oxygen cycles and each play an important role in helping to protect and maintain life on the Earth.
In short Oxygen cycle can be summarised like this:-

Sulphur Cycle

The sulphur cycle is the collection of processes by which sulphur moves to and from minerals (including the waterways) and living systems. Such biogeochemical cycles are important in geology because they affect many minerals. Biogeochemical cycles are also important for life because sulphur is an essential element, being a constituent of many proteins and cofactors. Sulphur is one of the components that make up proteins and vitamins. Proteins consist of amino acids that contain sulphur atoms. Sulphur is important for the functioning of proteins and enzymes in plants, and in animals that depend upon plants for sulphur. Plants absorb sulphur when it is dissolved in water. Animals consume these plants, so that they take up enough sulphur to maintain their health.Most of the earth’s sulphur is tied up in rocks and salts or buried deep in the ocean in oceanic sediments. Sulphur can also be found in the atmosphere. It enters the atmosphere through both natural and human sources. Natural recourses can be for instance volcanic eruptions, bacterial processes, evaporation from water, or decaying organisms. When sulphur enters the atmosphere through human activity, this is mainly a consequence of industrial processes where sulphur dioxide (SO2) and hydrogen sulphide (H2S) gases are emitted on a wide scale.When sulphur dioxide enters the atmosphere it will react with oxygen to produce sulphur trioxide gas (SO3), or with other chemicals in the atmosphere, to produce sulphur salts. Sulphur dioxide may also react with water to produce sulphuric acid (H2SO4). Sulphuric acid may also be produced from dimethyl sulphide, which is emitted to the atmosphere by plankton species.All these particles will settle back onto earth, or react with rain and fall back onto earth as acid deposition. The particles will then be absorbed by plants again and are released back into the atmosphere, so that the sulphur cycle will start over again.Diagram, 6A schematic representation of the sulphur cycle:

Phosphorous Cycle
The phosphorus cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of phosphorus through the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Unlike many other biogeochemical cycles, the atmosphere does not play a significant role in the movement of phosphorus, because phosphorus and phosphorus-based compounds are usually solids at the typical ranges of temperature and pressure found on Earth. The production of phosphine gas occurs only in specialized, local conditions.
The bones and teeth of animals including human beings contain Phosphates, which is necessaryfor their development and growth. In addition phosphates are essential for cells in the productionof DNA and RNA. Phosphates are available in the lithosphere in rocks and soil in inorganic form.Plants absorb them and convert them into organo phosphates. Phosphates are also added to thesoil through phosphatic fertilizers. Soluble phosphates reaching rivers and streams from agriculturallands made rich in phosphates causes excess algal growth leading to eutrophication. Return ofphosphates to the earth are by the decay of plant and animal matter and subsequent absorption.
The phosphorus cycle differs from the other major biogeochemical cycles in that it does not include a gas phase; although small amounts of phosphoric acid (H3PO4) may make their way into the atmosphere, contributing in some cases to acid rain. The water, carbon, nitrogen and sulphur cycles all include at least one phase in which the element is in its gaseous state. Very little phosphorus circulates in the atmosphere because at Earth’s normal temperatures and pressures, phosphorus and its various compounds are not gases. The largest reservoir of phosphorus is in sedimentary rock.It is in these rocks where the phosphorus cycle begins. When it rains, phosphates are removed from the rocks (via weathering) and are distributed throughout both soils and water. Plants take up the phosphate ions from the soil. The phosphates then moves from plants to animals when herbivores eat plants and carnivores eat plants or herbivores. The phosphates absorbed by animal tissue through consumption eventually returns to the soil through the excretion of urine, as well as from the final decomposition of plants and animals after death.
In short Nitrogen cycle can be summarised like this:

“Earth as an ecosystem stands out in the all of the universe. There’s no place that we know about that can support life as we know it, not even our sister planet, Mars, where we might set up housekeeping someday, but at great effort and trouble we have to recreate the things we take for granted here.”- Sylvia Earle

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D.

Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs. Rakhi Maheshwari, M.A. (English)  B.Ed

Research Scholar, Singhania University, Jhunjhunu, India

“…there is, as Gebhard et al.(1990:16) argue, no convincing evidence from pedagogic research, including research into second language instruction, that there is any universally or ‘best’ way to teach. Although, clearly, particular approaches are likely to prove more effective in certain situations, blanket prescription is difficult to support theoretically. The art of teaching does not lie in accessing a checklist of skills but rather in knowing which approach to adopt with different students, in different curricular circumstances or in different cultural settings (Klapper 2001:17).

There are a variety of terms which are sometimes used interchangeably in the same sense. Method and approach are the terms that have created a lot of confusion in the minds of a teacher. We sometimes talk oral approach, structural approach, direct method, grammar cum translation method, natural method etc. in teaching English. Before we discuss different methods and approaches in English teaching it will be essential  to make these terms clear and confusion free.

A method is an overall procedure for an orderly presentation of language material to the students. The order of presentation may be different for different students. The mother tongue of the student, his age, his cultural background as well as objectives of lesson can determine and modify the method to be employed by the teacher. There can be numerous methods within one approach.

In the process of learning and teaching a method of teaching is very important. In a method, the word ‘how’ is important. Thus, in a method we come to know how something is presented. This way, a method determines what and how much is taught (selection), the order in which it is taught (gradation), how the meaning and forms are conveyed (presentation) and what is done to make the use of the language unconscious (repetition). Thus we find that a method deals with form of things, i.e. – selection, gradation, presentation and repletion.

An approach describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught. It is something which we believe in terms of its effectiveness. It denotes to our reach that we are aiming t to realize. It is an assumption or guess which may or may not be accepted as effective. In other words, an approach is axiomatic or self- evident way of reaching the desired gals. It needs no support to justify its effectiveness.  While a method is procedural and definitely not axiomatic.

In attempting to define what ‘method’ is, we can consider Edward Anthony’s tripartite distinction of Approach, Method and Technique (Anthony: 1963).

This distinction was developed and recast by Richards and Rodgers (1982, 1985) as Approach, Design and Procedure, encompassed within the overall concept of Method, “an umbrella term for the specification and interrelation of theory and practice” (Richards & Rodgers 1985: 16) where

Approach refers to the beliefs and theories about language, language learning and teaching that underlie a method

• Design relates the theories of language and learning to the form and function of teaching materials and activities in the classroom;
• Procedure concerns the techniques and practices employed in the classroom as consequences of particular approaches and designs.

If ‘Method’ involves a particular set of features to be followed almost as a panacea, it can be suggested that we are now in a ‘Post-Method’ era where the emphasis is on the looser concept of ‘Approach’ which starts from some basic principles which are then developed in the design and development of practice. Accordingly, the Richards and Rodgers model (1985) might be recast as follows, without the outer shell of ‘Method’:

Comparison between Method and Approach

Teaching is a dynamic and well planned process to acquire maximum learning experiences. Thus, teaching methods are directly linked with teaching objectives. Each teaching method decides the direction and speed of the teaching and emphasizes systematic planning of the content. due to the changing form and status of English, many methods have been adopted to teach this language.

Factors affecting a teaching method

Teaching is a tri- polar process. Its first pole deals with instructional objectives. The second, with learning experience and the third one is evaluation.

Teacher and taught are directly related with the second phase as it deals with learning experience. Learning experiences are based on the content analysis and the selection of appropriate methodology.

Actually, any teaching process irrespective of the subject undergoes a specefic manner, in actual classroom teaching. In the present world of advanced technology, its similarity can be established with computer application:-

The selection of appropriate teaching methodology is influenced by four factor areas-

1. Factor relating to objectives

An objective is a point or end view of something towards which actions are directed.

Naturally, in teaching as well, all the actions are directed towards the achievement of objectives. Generally, the following factors related to the objectives are to be taken into account while selecting an appropriate teaching method.

1. Factors relating to teacher

The most active person in the entire teaching process is a teacher. His/ Her qualities determine the selection of the appropriate method.

1. Factors relating to  students

In the entire teaching process, a student holds a central position. His entering behaviour determines the selections

1. Factors relating to Content

The contents are the means to achieve the objectives. They are based on the communication, As the content possess its specific nature, it directly influence the appropriateness of the teaching method.

Methods are never ends in themselves, no method is good or bad in itself. The shortcomings of one method gives worth to another method. In order to achieve the objectives of English Teaching, The teacher must adopt the adequate method. For this, sound knowledge of various methods, their merits and demerits are essential.

Methods and Approaches to Language Teaching

Where there was once consensus on the “right” way to teach foreign languages, many teachers now share the belief that a single right way does not exist .How a method is manifest in the classroom will depend heavily on the individual teacher’s interpretation of its principles.
Some teachers prefer to practice one of the methods to the exclusion of others. Other teachers prefer to pick and choose in a principled way among the methodological options that exist, creating their own unique blend.

Grammar-Translation Method

This method was historically used in teaching Greek and Latin. Classes are taught in the students’ mother tongue, with little active use of the target language Learning is largely by translation to and from the target language. Grammar rules are to be memorized and long lists of vocabulary learned by heart. There is little or no emphasis placed on developing oral ability.

. Vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated word lists. Elaborate explanations of grammar are always provided. Grammar instruction provides the rules for putting words together; instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words.The Grammar-Translation Method focuses on developing students’ appreciation of the target language’s literature as well a teaching the language. Students are presented with target-language reading passages and answer questions that follow. Other activities include translating literary passages from one language into the other, memorizing grammar rules, and memorizing native-language equivalents of target language vocabulary. Class work is highly structured, with the teacher controlling all activities. . Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis. Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue, and vice versa. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.

Direct Method

This method was developed initially as a reaction to the grammar-translation approach in an attempt to integrate more use of the target language in instruction. In this method the teaching is done entirely in the target language. The learner is not allowed to use his or her mother tongue. Grammar rules are avoided and there is emphasis on good pronunciation.

The Direct Method allows students to perceive meaning directly through the language because no translation is allowed. Visual aids and pantomime are used to clarify the meaning of vocabulary items and concepts. Students speak a great deal in the target language and communicate as if in real situations. Reading and writing are taught from the beginning, though speaking and listening skills are emphasized. Grammar is learned inductively. Lessons begin with a dialogue using a modern conversational style in the target language. Material is first presented orally with actions or pictures. The mother tongue is never used The culture associated with the target language is also taught inductively. Culture is considered an important aspect of learning the language.

Audio-Lingual Method

This method is based on the principles of behavior psychology. The theory behind this method is that learning a language means acquiring habits. There is much practice of dialogues of every situations. New language is first heard and extensively drilled before being seen in its written form.

New material is presented in the form of a dialogue. Based on the principle that language learning is habit formation, the method fosters dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over-learning. Structures are sequenced and taught one at a time. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills. Little or no grammatical explanations are provided; grammar is taught inductively. Skills are sequenced: Listening, speaking, reading and writing are developed in order.Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context. . Great importance is given to precise native-like pronunciation. Use of the mother tongue by the teacher is permitted, but discouraged among and by the students.

The teacher directs and controls students’ behavior, provides a model, and reinforces correct responses.

The Silent Way

This is so called because the aim of the teacher is to say as little as possible in order that the learner can be in control of what he wants to say. No use is made of the mother tongue.

The theoretical basis of Gattegno’s Silent Way is the idea that teaching must be subordinated to learning and thus students must develop their own inner criteria for correctness. To avoid the use of the vernacular. To create simple linguistic situations that remain under the complete control of the teacher To pass on to the learners the responsibility for the utterances of the descriptions of the objects shown or the actions performed. To let the teacher concentrate on what the students say and how they are saying it, drawing their attention to the differences in pronunciation and the flow of words.

All four skills – reading, writing, speaking, and listening – are taught from the beginning. Students’ errors are expected as a normal part of learning: the teacher’s silence helps foster self-reliance and student initiative. The teacher is active in setting up situations, while the students do most of the talking and interacting.

Suggestopedia

Lozanov’s method seeks to help learners eliminate psychological barriers to learning. The theory underlying this method is that a language can be acquired only when the learner is receptive and has no mental blocks. By various methods it is suggested to the student that the language is easy – and in this way the mental blocks to learning are removed.

The learning environment is relaxed and subdued, with low lighting and soft music in the background. Students choose a name and character in the target language and culture, and imagine that person. Dialogs are presented to the accompaniment of music. Students just relax and listen to them being read and later playfully practice the language during an “activation” phase.

Community Language Learning

The focus of this method is to enable the learner to communicate effectively and appropriately in the various situations she would be likely to find herself in. The content of CLT courses are functions such as inviting, suggesting, complaining or notions such as the expression of time, quantity, location.

In Curren’s method, teachers consider students as “whole persons,” with intellect, feelings, instincts, physical responses, and desire to learn. Teachers also recognize that learning can be threatening. By understanding and accepting students’ fears, teachers help students feel secure and overcome their fears, and thus help them harness positive energy for learning. The syllabus used is learner-generated, in that students choose what they want to learn in the target language. This methodology created by Charles Curran is not based on the usual methods by which languages are taught. Rather the approach is patterned upon counselling techniques and adapted to the peculiar anxiety and threat as well as the personal and language problems a person encounters in the learning of foreign languages.

Total Physical Response Method

Asher’s approach begins by placing primary importance on listening comprehension, emulating the early stages of mother tongue acquisition, and then moving to speaking, reading, and writing. Students demonstrate their comprehension by acting out commands issued by the teacher; teachers provide novel and often humorous variations of the commands. Activities are designed to be fun and to allow students to assume active learning roles. Activities eventually include games and skits. James J. Asher defines the Total Physical Response (TPR) method as one that combines information and skills through the use of the kinesthetic sensory system

The student is not forced to speak, but is allowed an individual readiness period and allowed to spontaneously begin to speak when the student feels comfortable and confident in understanding and producing the utterancesThe method follows the following steps.

Step I The teacher says the commands as he himself performs the action.

Step 2 The teacher says the command as both the teacher and the students then perform the action.

Step 3 The teacher says the command but only students perform the action

Step 4 The teacher tells one student at a time to do commands

Step 5 The roles of teacher and student are reversed. Students give commands to teacher and to other students.

Step 6 The teacher and student allow for command expansion or produces new sentences.

TPR works by having the learner respond to simple commands such as “Stand up”, “Close your book”, “Go to the window and open it.” The method stresses the importance of aural comprehension.

The Natural Approach

This approach, propounded by Professor S. Krashen, stresses the similarities between learning the first and second languages. There is no correction of mistakes. Learning takes place by the students being exposed to language that is comprehensible or made comprehensible to them.

The Communicative Approach

The Communicative Approach stresses the need to teach communicative competence as opposed to linguistic competence; thus, functions are emphasized over forms. Students usually work with authentic materials in small groups on communicative activities, during which they receive practice in negotiating meaning.

Structural method

This method sees language as a complex of grammatical rules which are to be learned one at a time in a set order. So for example the verb “to be” is introduced and practised before the present continuous tense which uses “to be” as an auxiliary

The Lexical Syllabus

This approach is based on a computer analysis of language which identifies the most common (and hence most useful) words in the language and their various uses. The syllabus teaches these words in broadly the order of their frequency, and great emphasis is placed on the use of authentic materials.

A glance through the past century or so of language teaching will give an interesting picture of how varied the interpretations have been of the best way to teach a foreign language. As disciplinary schools of thought – psychology, linguistics, and education, have come and gone, so have language-teaching methods waxed and waned in popularity. Teaching methods, as “approaches in action,” are of course the practical application of theoretical findings and positions.

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D.

Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed.

Former Principal, A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

Education is a purposeful and ethical activity and each activity as aspect has some aim before it. So, there is a close relationship between an activity and its aim.

An aim is a conscious purpose which we set before us, while   launching upon any activity. Just like that education is also unthinkable without aims. If there are no aims the educational process would not take place because an aim is a pre-determined goal which inspires the activity of education. If the aims all clear, definite and meaningful then the activity will go on till the end goal is achieved.

In the words of John Dewey “An aim is a foreseen end that gives direction to an activity or motivates behavior”.

The Criteria of Good Aims.

( 1) The aim set up must be an outgrowth of existing conditions. It must be based upon a consideration of what is already going on; upon the resources and difficulties of the situation.

(3) The aim as it first emerges is a mere tentative sketch. The act of striving to realize it tests its worth. If it suffices to direct activity successfully, nothing more is required, since its whole function is to set a mark in advance; and at times a mere hint may suffice. An aim must, then, be flexible; it must be capable of alteration to meet circumstances

(3) The aim must always represent a freeing of activities. The term end in view is suggestive, for it puts before the mind the termination or conclusion of some process. The only way in which we can define an activity is by putting before ourselves the objects in which it terminates –

Characteristics found in all good educational aims.

While Dewey disliked the use of the term aims in its usual sense because it implied an end and Dewey saw on final and permanent end to education, he did set down three characteristics of good educational aims. These were:

1. An educational aim must be founded upon the intrinsic activates and needs (including original instinct and acquired habits) of the given individual to be educated …… it is one thing to use adult accomplishments as a context in which to place and survey the doings of childhood and youth; it is quite another to set them up as a fixed aim without regard to the concrete activates of those educated.

2. An aim must be capable of translation into a method of cooperation with the activities of those undergoing instruction. It must suggest the kind of environment needed to liberated and to organize their capacities…. Until the democratic criterion of the intrinsic significance of every growing experience is recognized, we shall be intellectually confused by the demands for adaptation to external aims.

3. Educators have to be on their guard against ends that are alleged to be general and ultimate. Every activity, however specific is , of course, general in its ramified connection of possible future achievements, the less his present activity is tied down to a small number of alternatives. If one knew enough, one could star almost anywhere and sustain his activities continuously and fruitfully.

Importance of Educational Aims

According to Encyclopedia of Modern Education, “ Education is purposeful and ethical activity. Hence it is unthinkable without aims.” We cannot proceed in any walk of life without aim. For achieving success in activity of life, clear and well defined aim is essential. An educator without the knowledge of aims can be compared to a sailor who does not know his destination. This means that a system of education which is not clear about its aims or which has undesirable ends is bound to fail. Aims give foresight to the educational planner.

All our methods of teaching, our curriculum and our system of evaluation are shaped and molded according to our aim of education. It is the ignorance of right aims that has vitiated our educational system, its methods and its products, and has successfully resulted in the physical, intellectual and moral weaknesses of the race. There is a great necessity of aims in education because of the following reasons:

1. To direct efforts : If aim is known we can make efforts to that end. Educational aims keep the teacher and the taught on the right track. They provide a line of action and guidance to the teachers. They give direction and zest to the work of the pupils. Educational aims help us to avoid wastage in time and energy. In the words of John Dewey, “To have an aim is to act with meaning.” Aims help us to act intelligently and to act with a meaning. We know what is to be done and we straight away start doing that.
2. To evaluate ourselves : Educational aims help us to evaluate ourselves. They use to take stock of the results of our effort. The aim is a yard-stick with which we can measure our success and failure. They are necessary to assess the outcome of the educational process.
3. To evaluate the existing conditions :  We as educators carefully evaluate the existing conditions i.e., contents of education, methods of teaching, efficiency of teaching, library equipment, planning of curricular and co-curricular activities in the light of our objective and plan for the future.

4.  To provide efficient school administration : Aims are necessary for efficient school administration and organization. They help the school authorities in organizing, equipping, and administering the school. Various aspects of school administration and organization such as proper selection of teachers, proper curricular and co-curricular activities, are guided by educational aims. It is rightly said that good schools evolve out of enlightened aims. Aims are guide-lines in the educational process. Like the sun, aims illumine our life. The ignorance of right aims will spoil the whole educational system.

Factors Determining Educational  Aims

Many factors have been contributing and do contribute to the determining of educational aims. These factors touch every phase of human life that was, that is or what will be.

1.Factors associated with  Philosophy of life : Aims of education are always  influenced by the philosophy of life of the people of that country. Idealistic philosophy lays down different aims like education for self-realization. Pragmatists have not faith in any fixed aim of education. The philosophy prevailing in the life of the people is reflected in the aims of education of that country.

2. Factors associated with   Psychology : The aims of education should be according to the nature, needs, requirements, inspiration and interest of the learners. If the aims of education are not in tune with the music of life, they will prove futile, useless, fruitless and ineffective. The aims of education should relate knowledge with the activities of life.

3. Factors associated with  Socio-economic problem : Besides, political ideologies, the social economic problems of a country, determine the aims of education. Education is vital force, which can silently, bury the socio-economic problems. It can thus evolve a society based on equality, co-operation and socialistic ideals.

4. Factors associated with  Political ideology : Political ideologies also help in determining the aims of education. Different political ideologies like democratic, totalitarian, fascist or communist etc. will fix different aims for education in the state. The aims of education under democratic state are flexible and change according to changing needs and conditions of many on the contrary in a totalitarian state. The aims of education are fixed in accordance with the ideology of the state to uphold the right of state.

5. Factors associated with   exploration of knowledge : Education has also to give due consideration to the advancements in knowledge as for as the question of educational aims are concerned. Education today has become science oriented all over the world. As other countries, in India also more and more stress is being laid on the study of modern sciences. This clearly shows that the spreading of new knowledge is an important factor in determining aims of education.

6. Factors associated with  Culture : Cultural heritage of a country also determine the aims of education. It is the most important function of the education to develop and preserve the cultural heritage. The changing and developing pattern of cultural factors directly influence the aims of education.

7. Factors associated with  Religion : Religious factor also influence the aims of education. Education and religion have close relationship. They affect society in different ways. In India although there is no state religion, yet different religious view points influence the aims of education. There are many large number of institutions run by different religious organization. They have to work to realize the aims accordingly.

General Aims of Education

Each individual teacher has an opinion about what the aim of education should be, not only in their own classroom but also in school in general. Many issues occur when differing opinions about the purpose of education collide. It is important to recognize that other people, including many of your co-workers, administrators, and your students’ parents might have a different point of view concerning what education should be all about. Following is a list of different aims of education that individuals might espouse.

A -. To Develop Social Skills

This might be considered another old school belief. However, this is held by many individuals, especially within the larger community. Students will some day be a part of a larger community and need the skills and mores to exist within that society as thoughtful citizens.. In many ways, this has taken on the popular view of a global citizen in a world that is coming closer together because of advances in technology.

B-. To Teach Students The Art of Living

Some individuals look at school in a more holistic manner. They see it as the means towards right living for the rest of their lives. Not only do students learn information in their individual subjects, but they also learn life lessons in and out of class. As previously explained, proper work etiquette is reinforced in the classroom. Further, students have to learn how to deal with others in a cooperative manner. Finally, they learn about how to learn information they might need in the future. In fact, one of the things that many business leaders cite as being necessary for future workers is the ability to work as part of a team and problem solve.

C-. To Learn How to Learn

Some teachers focus on their own subject matter as being more important than others. Even though they might not normally mention this out loud, their actions speak louder than words. Teachers who are unwilling to compromise their own subject matter for the good of the students would fit in this case.

Learning how to learn is one of the key elements of education. Helping students so that they know where to find information once they leave school is essential in most career paths. Therefore, those who share this aim feel that it is not the specific

D-  To Develop Balanced Personality

While the self esteem movement often gets ridiculed, we do want our students to feel confident about their learning abilities. The problem comes in with inflated self esteem not based on reality. However, this is often cited as an aim of the educational system.

E-To Develop Lifelong Habits for Work

Many of the lessons that school teaches are necessary for success in their future lives. They need to be able to get to work on time, dress appropriately, behave appropriately, and get their work done in a timely manner. These lessons are what are reinforced on a daily basis in schools around the nation. Some individuals see this as one of the main aims of sending students to school This old school belief holds that school is important in providing students with the knowledge they need to get by in their day-to-day lives. They need to know how to read, write, and do arithmetic. Many educators today would probably not agree that this should be the extent of a student’s education. However, it does form the foundation.

G- Knowledge of Subject Matter Being Taught

Individual Aims of Education:

Education prepares the pupil for becoming good individuals. Good individuals can realize his rights and perform his duties properly. The school should do its best for developing the child’s personality in all aspects and for bringing out his innate abilities to their full growth. T.P. Nunn, a strong advocate of individualism in education, has forcefully laid down “that nothing good enters into the human world except in and through the free activities of individual man and woman and that educational practice must be shaped to accord with that truth”.

Bertrand Russell, another distinguished individualist argues that everybody should be a good individual first and then everything else. The potentialities of an individual should be developed at first and then be utilized for him as well as for the society.

Russell has further pointed out that if individualism is not properly developed, none can achieve distinction in life. Laski, Huxley and Proper, the famous supporters of individualism have also opined that the welfare of the society can be built upon the well-being of the individuals.

Narrow Meaning of individual Aim : In the narrow sense, individual aim of education is given names like Self-expression, All round Development of Child’s Power and Natural Development. In this sense this aim of education is based on naturalistic philosophy. According to this, aim of education is based on naturalistic philosophy.

According to this philosophy, the child should be given complete freedom to develop according to his instincts.

Wider Meaning of Individual Aim: In the wider sense, development of individuality as an aim of education, can be described as ‘Self-realization’. According to this meaning, while keeping in view needs, interests and abilities, the child should be given all those opportunities which may help him in total development of all his powers and in making him an excellent individual.

Arguments in favor of Individual Aim

The following are generally advanced in favor of individual aim of education :–

1.  Based on  Psychological principles : Each child has distinct instincts and inherent tendencies. If he is not allowed to behave according to his nature and contrary to his social ideals together with social forms of behavior are forced upon him, he will become a mental patient. Tension, stress and mental conflict will develop in him with result that he will become a deceased and maladjusted individual. This has established the fact that interests, inclinations, aptitudes, capacities and needs of each child are distinct from the other. Hence, the main aim of education should be to develop the unique individuality of each child according to his nature in a natural way.

2. Based on Biological principles : Biological science asserts that as each child has an individuality of his own. His innate nature cannot be changed by any means. As such child is distinct entity, a new organization and a new experiment of life, the aim of education can be nothing else but to develop his unique individuality, naturally and distinctly. It is an admitted fact that when natural development of individuality has been suppressed, evil consequences have occurred. The first and the second world wars and their evil consequences are the glaring examples of such repressionistic philosophy.

3.   Based on  Progressive attitude : For his own good, the individual creates society to preserve, purify and transmit its culture to the rising generation so that the development of individual will naturally lead to the development of society. Hence, the aim of education should be the autonomous development of individuality.

4.  Based on Democratic  values : Every democratic country insisting upon the freedom of individuals, emphasise the fact that the aim of education should be the development of good citizens. It may be noted that good citizens develop from good persons. Hence, the aim of education should be the development of unique individuality of the individual.

Arguments against Individual Aim

The following arguments are generally advanced against individual aim of education:–

1.Possibility of Social Disintegration : Individual aim provides full freedom and unrestricted liberty to all individuals, such unrestricted liberty and freedom for all individuals will result in indiscipline, conflicts and tension which will start the process of social disintegration. Hence it is unwise to grant unrestricted freedom to the individual.

2.  Not applicable to Real Life : Acceptable of this aim presupposes that each child should be provided all facilities and opportunities to develop himself in his own way and according to his own interests and inherent tendencies. To achieve this aim the formulation of aims and construction of curriculum for each child shall be essentially different  from the others. This is almost impossible and impracticable presumption beyond the capacity and resources of even the richest country of the world.

3. Encourages  Individualism : Individual aim makes individual selfish  Individual aim of education will make individuals self-conceited and proud and this may lead to immoral behavior and unhealthy attitudes. The society will suffer  under the consequences of individualism. Individuality cannot develop from a vacuum; it develops in a social atmosphere. Unless society develops, individual cannot develop.

4. Disregard of  Social obligations : Maximum freedom may go against the society.  Each individual is a social animal. He develops his personality with the cooperation of society. Hence ,it is the prime duty of the individual to pay back this debt of society by working his best for the welfare of society. Unless he does this, his life will be a mere waste. Hence, it is no use, then to drum best the individual aim of education.

5. Disregard of Ethical values : Individual aim of education emphasizes the individual differences of children. If too much emphasizes on the individual differences then it will be very difficult to develop love, sympathy, sacrifice, service, co-operation and other moral values in children.

6. Encourages arbitrary actions : Individual aim of education provides unlimited and unrestricted freedom to the individual which makes him a man of arbitrary decisions and reckless actions. Thus, the power of reasoning and argumentation cannot develop properly in the children if this aim is blindly accepted.

Social Aim of Education

Man lives and gets his needs satisfied only in the society. Aristotle, the Greek philosopher has aptly said that the man who does not live in the society is either a god or a beast.

According to the social aim of education, the individual has to be prepared as an integral part of the society. There should be full control of the society over the individual.

The extreme form of social aim of education views the state as the glorified individual. The state therefore, must have absolute control over the lives and activities of the individuals. Education is the means of exercising this control. The will of the state is to be reflected in the curriculum, methods and materials of the education system.

In the ancient Sparta, a Greek city State and modern Germany under Nazi regime, such state control on education was excessive. The whole education was an exercise of obedience and brutal punishment was given for any misconduct or disobedience.

Another group of educationists like Bagley and Dewey hold that social aim of education is to bring about social efficiency in the individual. Such social efficiency is the test for judging the success of educational practice.

The social aim is quite in opposition to the individual aim. The supporters of this aim believe that society is considered to be more important than the individual. They are of the view that man is a social, acquires socialization through his personality only in society. He lives in society, acquires socialization through his contact with his family, his relatives, his neighbors and friends. He learn the ways of moving in society, of talking to people, of mutual behaviour through these contacts. Moreover, through these contacts with others he satisfies his own physical and psychological needs. He cannot hope to exist outside society.

Narrow Meaning of Social Aim :

In its narrow meaning, social aim of education is equated with state socialism. Where liberty of the individual is totally curtailed and all aspect of individual life are socialized. Total power is concentrated in the state. An individual cannot even dream of his individual identity. As such, the state frames such a scheme of education through which it is able to control the aims, curriculum and the methods of teaching. Individuals are subjected to rigid discipline to curb their sense of identity and individualism.

Wider Meaning of Social Aim:

In its wider sense, the social aim is equated with democratic socialism. In this sense, it does not agree with the insignificance of the individual24 before the state, but is made to behave in such ways that it ensures the development of society along with its own development. Thus, in wider meaning the social aim grants liberty to the individual to enjoy certain rights to develop his personality, but at the same time expects from the individual to serve the state to the best of his ability and capacity.

In short, wider meaning of social aim of education finds expression in such rallying cries as ‘Education for social service’, and aims at the good of the community, Laying stress on teaching citizenship in school, through various subjects in the curriculum and through various social activities. This democratic view of social aim of education is applauded in India, Great Britain, America and other democratic powers.

Arguments in Support of Social Aim

The following arguments are given in favour of social aim :–

(1)      Society is just like a huge human body. Just as all the parts of the body get sustenance from the fulfilment of all the needs of the body, much in the same way each individual is benefited, the whole society gets developed in all its aspect. Hence, society should be assigned more value and importance than the individuals.

(2) Each individual born with animal or raw instincts according to the heredity phenomenon. It is the magic of social environment that develops into a human being from his animal stage. As such, education should emphasis social welfare.

(3) Culture and civilization are born and developed in society. Hence, it is the duty of every individual to serve society in order to maintain and develop both.

(4) Society or state is an indispensable need. Without society, peace and justice cannot be maintained. Thus, individuals should be prepared to maintain society or the state even at the cost of their lives.

(5) In the words of Raymont, “An isolated individual is a figment of imagination.” Hence, individual must make society stable and well organized.

(6) Society provides opportunities for the individuals to live together in groups so that they are able to make discoveries and new inventions to lead a happy life.

Thus, individual should be all pervaded with feeling of social service and sacrifice.

Arguments against Social Aims of Education

The following arguments are given in against of social aim:-

Unpsychological base : This aim is unpsychological. It neglects individual differences and emphasizes to prepare the individuals to fulfil the needs and requirements of the society or the state.The protagonists of this aim consider man as means only for the social good or national welfare. It should be remembered that his concept of individual makes him very insignificant

Discourages individual freedom: Social aim opposes individual freedom. There is a complete regimentation of ideas and feelings. Under a totalitarian from of government, this aim make the individual a mere puppet in the hands of unscrupulous statesmen. Thus his individuality will be crushed. It is felt that education should not stand for the suppression of individuality. It should rather work for its exaltation. It makes individual only a tool of government.

Discourages development of aesthetic values : Development of art and literature depends upon individual’s devoted efforts. As have stated that under social aim there is no place for individual freedom. Hence according to this aim of education there will be hindrance in the development of art and literature.

Discourages intellectual and moral development : Over emphasis on this aim will stand as an obstacle in the way of intellectual and character development and emotional integration. Horne is also of this view.

Encourages  national jingoism : This aim of education will develop narrow nationalism. The idea or the belief of “my country, right or wrong” will take place. Such a frame of mind will block the progress and lead to narrow-mindedness, blunt thinking and unscientific understanding. The idea of my country right or wrong has brought about two world wars.

The Synthesis of Individual and Social aims:

The present century has been called a century of compromises. It is possible to have a synthesis between individual and social aim. Individual and society are complementary to each other. The individual is the product of society, and the society, in its own turn finds its fulfillment in the development of its individual members. While talking of proper synthesis between individual and society we imagine an ideal nation26 where individual and society should be combined together, where the aims of one should not interfere with those of the other, where both should always be trying to prove beneficial to each other. Such society will be helpful in the development of individual. No individual can develop in a social vacuum. An individual can develop only in a progressive society and the society can achieve a high degree of excellence with developed individuals

The perfection of the individual and good of  the community. Isolated individual is the figment of the society. Thus the function of education is to enable him to be an active participant in a programme of social regeneration on the other hand. Individual is of no value, and personality is a meaningless term apart from social environment, self-realization can be achieved only through social service, and social ideals of real value can come into being only through individuals who have developed valuable individuality. This circle cannot be broken,

Another fact related to it is that individual should have feeling of sacrifice for the society. He should always be careful about the welfare of the society. Thus education has two-fold aspects. Individual aim and social aim of education go independently. Both are opposing to each other. It is not in reality. Neither the individual nor the society can exist. The individual is the product of the society while society finds its advancement in the development of its individual member.

There is no conflict between self-realization and social service (individual and social aim). They are rather one and the same. They are the suitable ideal of life and education. We can make this world a richer, nobler and happier place only by promoting both. Both are complementary and can be pursued at the same time.

An aim denotes the result of any natural process brought to consciousness and made a factor in determining present observation and choice of ways of acting. It signifies that an activity has become intelligent. Specifically it means foresight of the alternative consequences attendant upon acting in a given situation in different ways, and the use of what is anticipated to direct observation and experiment. A true aim is thus opposed at every point to an aim which is imposed upon a process of action from without. The latter is fixed and rigid; it is not a stimulus to intelligence in the given situation, but is an externally dictated order to do such and such things. Instead of connecting directly with present activities, it is remote, divorced from the means by which it is to be reached. Instead of suggesting a freer and better balanced activity, it is a limit set to activity. In education, the currency of these externally imposed aims is responsible for the emphasis put upon the notion of preparation for a remote future and for rendering the work of both teacher and pupil mechanical and slavish.

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D.

Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed.

Former Principal, A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

Society   is ever changing. We have to cope with this change and also to intelligently carve a desired way to prepare ourselves for  future. Education is the oldest and biggest enterprise of man, in terms of manpower engaged or number of human beings involved in its pursuit, with and to ensure harmonious, complete and all round development. It can, therefore, never be unplanned and aimless venture or purposeless activity. To think of ‘whys’ and ‘how’ of education, before we actually go in for it is a pre-requisite. Education without proper and well defined aims, objectives, goals and motives is quite unthinkable.

No educator can dare talk of education without mention of its goals, aim, purpose or objectives. An education without the knowledge of aims, objective and goals of education is like a sailor navigating a ship without the knowledge of destination and the route. So, aims are a must for education and need to be laid down explicitly.

Education is a purposeful and ethical activity and each activity as aspect has some aim before it. So, there is a close relationship between an activity and its aim.

An aim is a conscious purpose which we set before us, while   launching upon any activity. Just like that education is also unthinkable without aims. If there are no aims the educational process would not take place because an aim is a pre-determined goal which inspires the activity of education. If the aims all clear, definite and meaningful then the activity will go on till the end goal is achieved.

An aim is a foreseen end that gives direction to an activity or motivates behaviour. Aims are guide-lines in the educational process. Like the sun, aims illumine our life. The ignorance of right aims will spoil the whole educational system.

According to Encyclopaedia of Modern Education, “ Education is purposeful and ethical activity. Hence it is unthinkable without aims.” We cannot proceed in any walk of life without aim. For achieving success in activity of life, clear and well defined aim is essential. An educator without the knowledge of aims can be compared to a sailor who does not know his destination. This means that a system of education which is not clear about its aims or which has undesirable ends is bound to fail. Aims give foresight to the educational planner.

All our methods of teaching, our curriculum and our system of evaluation are shaped and moulded according to our aim of education. It is the ignorance of right aims that has vitiated our educational system, its methods and its products, and has successfully resulted in the physical, intellectual and moral weaknesses of the race. There is a great necessity of aims in education because of the following reasons:

If aim is known we can make efforts to that end. Educational aims keep the teacher and the taught on the right track. They provide a line of action and guidance to the teachers. They give direction and zest to the work of the pupils. Educational aims help us to avoid wastage in time and energy. In the words of John Dewey, “To have an aim is to act with meaning.” Aims help us to act intelligently and to act with a meaning. We know what is to be done and we straight away start doing that.

Educational aims help us to evaluate ourselves. They use to take stock of the results of our effort. The aim is a yard-stick with which we can measure our success and failure. They are necessary to assess the outcome of the educational process.

We as educators carefully evaluate the existing conditions i.e., contents of education, methods of teaching, efficiency of teaching, library equipment, planning of curricular and co-curricular activities in the light of our objective and plan for the future.

Aims of education are always influenced by the philosophy of life of the people of that country, for example Idealistic philosophy lays down different aims like education for self-realisation. Pragmatists have not faith in any fixed aim of education. The philosophy prevailing in the life of the people is reflected in the aims of education of that country.

Aims of Education in Idealism

The purpose of education is to contribute to the development of the mind and self of the learner. The education-imparting institute should emphasize intellectual activities, moral judgments, aesthetic judgments, self-realization, individual freedom, individual responsibility, and self-control in order to achieve this development.

In an idealistic education system emphasis should be placed on developing the mind, personal discipline, and character development. A person should be literate and of good moral character

The aim of education is to brings the child as close to Absolute Truth as possible. All of the aims of the idealist as educator find their ground in the conception of Ultimate Reality and the students’ relation to this Reality.

More specifically, the school can take a leading role in defining and refining our knowledge of Truth an the Absolute. The school has a responsibility to find and to train future leaders. As will be seen, much of the curriculum for the idealist is based on the study of earlier leaders.

In idealism, the aim of education is to discover and develop each individual’s abilities and full moral excellence in order to better serve society The school, as one of the social institutions concerned with the Absolute must make judgments as to what is right and what is wrong; thus, one of the aim of education would be to develop morality.

Another aim of education is the maintenance and transmission of the established values of the past. Once we have established that something is good, or true, or beautiful, it is a responsibility of the school to pass it one to succeeding generations.

Aims of Education in Naturalism

The naturalistic hierarchy of educational objectives represents a complete reversal of traditional purposes of the school, chiefly, perfecting of man’s highest powers via study of literature, philosophy, and classics

Education is for the body as well as the mind; and this should not be forgotten. Even if it were possible, there is no point in making a man mentally fit for life and neglecting hisphysical fitness The naturalist, as Herbert Spencer represents them, first regards the pupil from the physical side. For the child is at bottom a little animal, whatever else he may be. He has a body, or, to be more accurate, he is a body one of his first requirements therefore is that he be healthy, a vigorous animal, able to stand the wear and tear of living

Mind and body must both be cared for and the whole being of the student unfolded as a unit. . A child is bad because he is weak, make him strong and he will be good.”

Rousseau’s aim  is to show how a natural education, enables Émile to become social, moral, and rational while remaining true to his original nature. For it  he is educated to be a man, not a priest, a soldier, or an attorney, he will be able to do what is needed in any situation.

Since the naturalist denies the validity of any aims outside the natural sphere, their concern must be with immediate or proximate aims. Perhaps these aims might be summed in the dictum that schools should develop the “whole child,” that is, the entire natural organism. Whereas traditional education had placed major emphasis upon intellectual function, the naturalist proposes that the child be given opportunity to grow physically, mentally, socially, emotionally, aesthetically, vocationally, under the auspices of the school.

According to Spencer this can be achieved by “that education which prepares for direct and indirect self-preservation; that which prepares for parenthood; that which prepares for citizenship; that which prepares for the miscellaneous refinements of life.” Thus the school’s most important job as an educational agency is to see to it that the child learns how to preserve his own physical health and well-being. Preparation for citizenship and leisure time activities appear at  the end of the list and are of lesser importance.

“Complete living” is the general aim. As this is not very explicit term, it may be made more understandable by a parallel attempt at generalization. This impression is borne out by the specific objectives which are now to be discussed.

1. Self-preservation is the first of the five objectives. In order to live completely, as man has first of all to live, he has to continue his own existence. While instinct is the chief guarantee of this objective, education may also help by acquainting the learner with the laws of health and enabling him to earn a living.

2. Securing the necessities of life. It is especially in the realm of developing economic efficiency that education helps in preserving life. Money is not life, but it is a necessity in maintaining life. Education should train directly for success in this important function.

3. Raising children. Though a bachelor, Spencer held that the most important function that most men and women have to perform is that of being parents. Therefore education should deal unashamedly both with the care of children in the nursery and the discipline of them as growing boys and girls.

4. Maintenance of social and political relations. Beyond the home in the far-reaching social structure, man must have some understanding and mastery of social and political processes if living is to be complete. He must be a wise citizen who is equipped for effective social and political action.

5. Enjoyment of leisure. Life is not all serious struggles, keeping physically strong, earning a living, being a responsible parent and an earnest citizen. Complete living also includes freedom from struggle some of the time for “gratification of the tastes and feelings.”

Aims of Education in Pragmatism

The aim of education The aim of education according to pragmatism is dynamic in nature . According to pragmatists the main focus of education is not social heritage of the past, but the good life in the present and in the future. The standard of social good is constantly changing, so it should be tested and verified through changing experience. Life does not stand still and there is a constant need for improvement.

To have an aim is to act with meaning.-John Dewey, Democracy and Education

Pragmatists believe that the aims are always determined by individual not by any organization or any structure.  Perhaps the best statement of what might be called the pragmatist’s educational aims can be found in the writing of John Dewey. The aim for education is to teach children to be comfortable in their learning environment to an extent that children are living their life. Dewey believed in this type of environment that is not considered a preparation for life, but life. He believed that educators should know the things that motivate and interest children and plan accordingly. Dewey believed that aims should grow out of existing conditions, be tentative, and have an end view.

In Democracy and education, he wrote that education is “that reconstruction or reorganization of experience which adds to the meaning of experience, and which increases ability to direct the course of subsequent experience.” The aim that might be derived from the foregoing definition of education would include the helping of the child to develop in such a way as to contribute to his continued growth.

While Dewey disliked the use of the term aims in its usual sense because it implied an end and Dewey saw on final and permanent end to education, he did set down three characteristics of good educational aims. These were:

1. An educational aim must be founded upon the intrinsic activates and needs (including original instinct and acquired habits) of the given individual to be educated …… it is one thing to use adult accomplishments as a context in which to place and survey the doings of childhood and youth; it is quite another to set them up as a fixed aim without regard to the concrete activates of those educated.

2. An aim must be capable of translation into a method of cooperation with the activities of those undergoing instruction. It must suggest the kind of environment needed to liberated and to organize their capacities…. Until the democratic criterion of the intrinsic significance of every growing experience is recognized, we shall be intellectually confused by the demands for adaptation to external aims.

3. Educators have to be on their guard against ends that are alleged to be general and ultimate. Every activity, however specific is , of course, general in its ramified connection of possible future achievements, the less his present activity is tied down to a small number of alternatives. If one knew enough, one could star almost anywhere and sustain his activities continuously and fruitfully.

Thus, it would seem safe to say that for Dewey and the pragmatists the one “aim” in education is to provide the conditions that make growth possible.

Aims of Education in Realism

Realists do not believe in general and common aims of education. According to them aims are specific to each individual and his perspectives. And each one has different perspectives. The aim of education should be to teach truth rather than beauty, to understand the present practical life. The purpose of education, according to social realists, is to prepare the practical man of the world.

The science realists expressed that the education should be conducted on universal basis. Greater stress should be laid upon the observation of nature and the education of science. Neo-realists aim at developing all round development of the objects with the development of their organs.

The realist’s primary educational aim is to teach those things and values which will lead to the good life. But for the realist, the good life is equated with one which is in tune with the overarching order of natural law. Thus, the primary aim of education becomes to teach the child the natural and moral law, or at least as much of it as we know, so that his generation may lead the right kind life; one in tune with the laws to the universe. There are, of course, more specific aims which will lead to the goals already stated. For example, realists set the school aside as a special place for the accumulation and preservation of knowledge.

Realists just as other philosophers have expressed the aims of education in various forms. According to John Wild the aim of education is fourfold to discern the truth about things as they really are and to extend and integrate such truth as is known to gain such practical knowledge of life in general and of professional functions in particular as can be theoretically grounded and justified and finally to transmit this in a coherent and convincing way both to young and to old throughout the human community.

Breed expressing similar sentiments avers that the chief function of all education is direction of the learning process. Education should guide the student in discovering and knowing the world around him as this is contained in the school subjects.

Russell follows the same line of reasoning in his discussion of educational objectives. He too would not object to the school’s assisting the child to become a healthy happy and well-adjusted individual. But he insists that the prime goal of all school activities should be the development of intelligence. The well-educated person is one whose mind knows they would as it is. Intelligence is that human function which enables one to acquire knowledge. The school should do all in its power to develop intelligence.

Harry Broudy, a contemporary realist, proposes that the good life should be ultimate aim of education since it is the final goal of all human activity.

Aims of  Education in Existentialism

Existentialists have been quite consistent in their recommendation of educational aims which are in harmony with their philosophic views… Existentialism is concerned principally with liberal education, freeing man from his isolation and his anonymity, freeing his mind from the confusions that prevent him from seeing his situations and his powers.

Prior to starting this general objective for education, Harper had pointed up that the existentialist wants to educate the “whole child,” not just one side. This “whole-child” concept has been utilized by others, among them the instrumentalists. But the existentialist proposes a more individualistic notion, that is, the “unfolding of the individual as a whole in the situation in which he finds himself. The existentialist emphasizes those situations such as tragedy, guilt, suffering, and, death which happen to the individual rather than the group. Nietzsche voices the same view against “the general all genuine aims for education” in which the individual is lost sight of as an individual.

According to existentialist, education should make a man subjective and should make him conscious for his individuality or ‘self’. Being self conscious he will recognize his ‘self’ and he will get an understanding of his ‘being’. Individuality lies on self-realization, a motivating force, from an existential perspective; a sense of self-identity is gained by how an individual relates to and values his or her relations. The purpose of education is to build character, to optimize potential and creativity and to enhance the quality of life through knowledge, and then from an existentialist perspective bureaucratization needs to be replaced by humanization.

Education is that which helps an individual to realize the best that he is capable of. In doing so education must help the individual to realize the ‘fact city’ (contingency) of his existence to face the categories of this fact city – dread, anguish, anxiety and fear – resolutely and courageously and finally prepare him to meet death with pleasure.

Education for happiness is a dangerous doctrine because there can be no happiness without pain and no ecstasy without suffering.” Therefore, existentialists would welcome an education, which throws open to children human suffering, misery, anguish and the dreadful responsibilities of adult life.

Every individual is unique. Education must develop in him this uniqueness. It must cater to individual differences Education must make pupil aware of the infinite possibilities of his freedom and the responsibilities he must bear in life.

The most important aim in education is the becoming of a human person as one who lives and makes decisions about what he will do and be. “Knowing” in the sense of knowing oneself, social relationship, and biological development, is all the parts of becoming. Human existence and the value related to it is the primary factory in education.Education should train men to make better choices and also give the man the idea that since his choices are never perfect, the consequences cannot be predicted.

The ultimate aim of education is to make man conscious of his destination, to give understanding of his ‘being’ and ultimately lead him to his heavenly abode. So, it is clear that the existentialism accepts the principle of liberal education.

In short, the objective of education is to enable every individual to develop his unique qualities, to harness his potentialities and cultivate his individualities. It means the implication of existentialist formulations for child rearing education and counseling practices are many. Since existentialists behold human life as unique and emerging a child is to be recognized as a full person and not simple as an in complete adult. The practices by which the child is socialized varied from culture to culture.

Aims of Education in Humanism

The  “Epistemology” gives the clue to determining humanistic education aims. Since reason or intellect is man’s noblest quality it behooves educators to concentrate their efforts on the development of intellectual power.

It is true that noted humanists, such as Vives and Erasmus, mentioned character formation as a goal of education. Within the context of classroom instruction, however, moral education was definitely allotted a minor role. classroom activities were directed almost exclusively to the building of intellectual-verbal skills within the student. .

It seems, then, that for the humanist, the primary aim of the Education  as distinct from the broad notion of education carried on in the home, church, and social institutions, was the cultivation of the intellect of the student

The goal of education should be to foster students’ desire to learn and teach them how to learn. Students should be self-motivated in their studies and desire to learn on their own

As described by Gage and Berliner (1991) there are five basic objectives of the humanistic view of education:

• promote positive self-direction and independence (development of the regulatory system);
• develop the ability to take responsibility for what is learned (regulatory and affective systems);
• develop creativity (divergent thinking aspect of cognition);
• curiosity (exploratory behavior, a function of imbalance or dissonance in any of the systems);
• and an interest in the arts (primarily to develop the affective/emotional system).

Humanism and Concept of teacher

The role of the teacher is important in successfully educating children. Theteacher  must capture the child’s interest and build on the natural motivation that exists. Teachers need to remember to vary their teaching methods to accommodate each individual learning style. Not all children learn at the same pace or are at the  same point; therefore, the teacher must vary his/her style. knowledge should be organized and relate to current experiences Teacher is a facilitator; helper; partner; promotes, but does not direct learning, sets mood for learning, acts as a flexible resource for learners

There are a variety of ways teachers can implement the humanist view towards education. Some of these include:

• Allow the student to have a choice in the selection of tasks and activities whenever possible.
• Help students learn to set realistic goals.
• Have students participate in group work, especially cooperative learning, in order to develop social and affective skills.
• Act as a facilitator for group discussions when appropriate.
• Be a role model for the attitudes, beliefs and habits you wish to foster. Constantly work on becoming a better person and then share yourself with your students.

Humanistic educators believe that both feelings and knowledge are important to the learning process. Unlike traditional educators, humanistic teachers do not separate the cognitive and affective domains:

Aims of Education in Perennialism

Because human beings are essentially the same, education should be essentially the same for everyone. The function of a citizen may vary from society to society, but the function of man, as a man, is the same in every age and in every society since it results from his nature as a man. “The aim of an educational system … is to improve man as man

For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire understandings about the great ideas of Western civilization. These ideas have the potential for solving problems in any era. The focus is to teach ideas that are everlasting, to seek enduring truths which are constant, not changing, as the natural and human worlds at their most essential level, do not change. A Perennialist views nature, human nature, and the underlying principles of existence as constant. The principles of knowledge are enduring. Truth never changes

Education should be for the “long-haul,” not for the immediate, contemporary fad. It is not the job of the school to meddle in contemporary problems, social reform, and political action. It is the job of the school to provide an education on the basis of which education, students later after graduation can rationally initiate the efforts for social reform, change, and political action.

At least the ultimate aims of educations – are held to be the same for all men in all times and places. But, just what are these aims? They are the development of the intellectual and spiritual capabilities of the individual to their highest level. The lay perennialist is, of course, primarily concerned with developing the intellect. The school need not concern itself wit the social graces or the physical well-being of the student except insofasr as they are necessary for the intellectual training of the child.

Aim of Education in Analytic Philosophies

As might be expected, the analysist’s deny that the goals of schooling can be reduced from any reduced from any mystical or rationalistic source. Some one captained that philosophy promises truth and delivers only some quibbles about its definition. Similarly, the linguist concentrate on asking us what we ‘mean’ when we talk about aims and objectives ‘ought to be’. Gotesky differentiates means, ends-in-view, anticipations, and outcomes. Perkinson argues that educational aims are hypothetical rather than categorical and that they are empirically testable when a sufficient context is supplied. Peters even holds that it is irrelevant for the teacher to have aims, since this concept does not apply to what happens in teaching, as the aims are not always in plain sight. Specific aims such as life adjustment equality, intellectual growth and mental health, have been analyse linguistically in articles, by Ballenger, Blackings ton, Broody, Cooing, Konica, Lieberman, O’Conner and others.

Aims  of Education in Marxism

Unlike their American counterparts who can agree upon no ultimate goal, Communist educators are in perfect accord that the ultimate purpose of education is “strengthening the communistic  state and the building of a Classless society.” All other objectives are subsidiary. This central aim supplies the rationale for the curriculum, teaching methods, teacher-pupil freedom and discipline in the schools, which agency shall have responsibility for education, and who shall be educated.

It is worth noting that this ultimate aim of education is derived from and is wholly in harmony with the Marxist conception of change and morality. All changes is directed toward achieving a classless society in the Communist millennium: Communist morality also has the same end insofar as the criterion of all morality is the extent to which behavior contributes to or detracts from the attainment of a classless society.

Any method or technique which detracts from this central concept is unacceptable any or technique which fosters it is highly desirable. Obviously, the classroom teacher needs some “down-to-earth” objectives as guides for his daily lessons. One can locate some of the proximate goals which guide the teacher.

• The development of knowledge in the academic areas such as mathematics, science, foreign language, and history. But knowledge or science for its own sake must be abhorred. All knowledge has a social purpose, the service of the state.
• Competence in those vocational fields for which the greatest demand exists, such as technology and agriculture.
• Respect for public property. Great emphasis is placed on this objective since youth are inclined to be careless with things which do not belong to them
• Development of good health habits. Youth can be of little service to society if they are not physically fit..
• Training of the will of students so that they will understand and conform to party discipline for the good of socialist society.
• Development of habits of industriousness which will motivate the person to put forth maximum effort for the common good.
• . Creation of a courageous spirit in ever Communist to enable him to fight for Communist to enable him to fight for Communism and against capitalism in both hot and cold wars. D
• . The promotion and spread of atheism in Communist lands and throughout the world. Only when men’s minds are freed from the superstitions of theism with all its capitalistic connotations will they be freed for the work of international Communism.
• Development of aesthetic perception to enable the student to distinguish the beautiful and the harmonious from the ugly and the vulgar.
• Acquisition of habits governing manners, dress, and social behaviour.
• . Developing “initiative and independent thought” in harmony with the goal of Marxist-Leninist ideology.

This rather lengthy list of educational objectives should dispel the notion that schools in Communist countries are narrowly academic. In fact, since the Khrushchev era, Soviet educators have been openly critical of the intellectualistic goals of education during the Stalin era. The Communist conceives the role of the school as one which should develop the “whole child,” not merely his intellectual powers

“The aim of education should be to teach us rather how to think, than what to think – rather to improve our minds, so as to enable us to think for ourselves, than to load the memory with the thoughts of other men.” James Beattie