Dr. V.K. Maheshwari, Ph.D

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D.

Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed.

Former Principal, A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

God is, even though the whole world deny him. Truth stands, even if there be no public support. It is self-sustained.
Mahatma Gandhi

Theology, of course, is the study of gods — does a god exist, what a god is, what a god wants, etc. Every religion has its own theology because of its study of gods, if it includes any gods, it will proceed from specific doctrines and traditions which vary from one religion to the next.

There is rather wide range of attempted answers to the problem of God. Starting at one end of the gamut and proceeding to the other, they may be suggested

Atheism-

Atheism is a positive denial, denial of metaphysical beliefs in God or divine beingsl. There is no ultimate reality in or behind the cosmos which is Person or Spirit. It is rooted in an array of philosophical systems.  Since atheists don’t accept the existence of any gods, they don’t accept that theology is the study of anything real.

Deism-

A movement or system of thought advocating natural religion, emphasizing morality, and denying the interference of the Creator with the laws of the universe.

Accordingly God exists quite apart from, and is disinterested in, the physical universe and human beings. But He created both and is the Author of all natural and moral law. belief in the existence of a supreme being, specifically of a creator who does not intervene in the universe. The term is used chiefly of an intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries that accepted the existence of a creator on the basis of reason but rejected belief in a supernatural deity who interacts with humankind.

Pantheism-

A doctrine that equates God with the forces and laws of the universe. All is God and God is all. The cosmos and God are identical. The conception of God as emerging, for which there is no common name. God is evolving with the cosmos; He is the end toward which it is moving, instead of the beginning from which it came. A doctrine that identifies God with the universe, or regards the universe as amanifestation of God.Worship that admits or tolerates all gods. The worship of all gods of different creeds, cults, or peoples indifferently;  toleration of worship of all gods.

Polytheism-

Spiritual reality is plural rather than a unity. Thee is more than one God. the belief in or worship of more than one god. Belief in many gods. Though Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are monotheistic , most other religions throughout history have been polytheistic. The numerous gods may be dominated by a supreme god or by a small group of powerful gods. The gods originated as abstractions of the forces of nature such as the sky or the sea and of human and social functions such as love, war, marriage, or the arts. In many religions the sky god is powerful and all-knowing , and the earth goddess is maternal and associated with fertility. Gods of death and the underworld  are also important. In addition to many gods, polytheistic religions generally also include malevolent or benevolent spiritual forces or powers.

Theism-

Belief in the existence of a God or gods;   belief in the existence of one God viewed as the creative source of the human race and the world who transcends yet is immanent in the world. Ultimate reality is a personal God who is more than the cosmos but within whom and through the cosmos exists. Belief in the existence of a god or gods, esp. belief in one god as creator of the universe, intervening in it and sustaining a personal relation to his creatures.

Theism view that all observable phenomena are dependent on but distinct from one supreme being. The view usually entails the idea that God is beyond human comprehension, perfect and self-sustained, but also peculiarly involved in the world and its events. Theists seek support for their view in rational argument and appeals to experience. A central issue for theism is reconciling God, usually understood as omnipotent and perfect, with the existence of evil.

Theoretical Rationale of Concept of God :

The most crucial queries of philosophy are questions as to the existence and nature of God. Of course it is radically decisive to believe or not to believe in God. It is important however to understand something of the nature of the reality or object we signify when we  use the word God as well as to believe concerning His existence.

Concept of God in Idealism

Idealism as a philosophy presents an ontological framework compatible with religion. Wherever order is externally imposed, wherever there is an Ideal, it is a simple step to bring in God an intermediary or intermediary class between God or the Ideal and man. The intermediary class (whether prophet, teacher, or priest) is composed of those better able to understand or communicate with the Ideal. These intermediaries, in some societies, soon become a privileged class.

Plato holds the assumption that the spirit of man is eternal. Whatever he knows is already contained within his spirit. Existence depends upon mind. Every stimulus received by the mind is derived ultimately from God. God is the Infinite Spirit.

Absolute is viewed as the final and most ethical of all things and persons, or as God, who is by definition perfect and it thus perfect in morals the idealist’s epitome of ethical conduct Idealists generally root all values either in a personal God or in a personal spiritual force of nature. They all agree that values are eternal. Theistic Idealists assert that eternal values exist in God. Good and evil, beauty and ugliness are known to the extent that the idea of good and the idea of beauty are consistent with the absolute good and the absolute beauty found in God. Pantheistic Idealists identify God with nature. Values are absolute and unchanging because they are a part of the determined order of nature and morality will lie in the imitation of Absolute Self.

Concept of God in Naturalism

Many naturalists do not use the term God , but surprisingly there are Naturalists who talk about God ,and although they do not advance classical arguments for His existence they go on to give some definition of His nature.

According toWiesman, the renowned Naturalist God is within Nature .He is not all nature nor more than  nature .He is that particular structure of nature in nature which is sufficiently limited to be described as making possible the realization of value and as the foundation of all values

God is that process within Nature which is a kind of open door to all who would grow in richness of life and at the same time God is the stable ground in Nature which sustains and constitute the values by which life is enriched ,Because of this, God, the structure of value itself, is the greatest of all values, the most worthy in human experience to which man must adjust if he is to grow in the possession and enjoyment of value.

Concept of God in Pragmatism

Naturalism reduces everything to life or matter, Idealism to mind or self.

Pragmatics sees no necessity of limiting herself to one or two fundamental principles of explanation, she is  quite content to admit several principles of explanation and accordingly pluralistic. In brief Pragmatism is a mid way in between the extreme form of naturalism and absolute idealism. That is why many philosophers even do not consider it as a philosophy , they treat it as a process or method or attitude.

There are two major points which must be made about the ontological bases of pragmatism. First, the traditional distinction between mind and matter as two separate and independent substances is rejected by the pragmatists, and second, the pragmatists use, as their ontological base line, the concept of experience.

In short, she widens the field of search for God. Rationalism sticks to logic and the empyrean. Empiricism sticks to the external senses. Pragmatism is willing to take anything, to follow either logic or the senses and to count the humblest and most personal experiences if they have practical consequences. She will take a God who lives in the very dirt of private fact – if that should seem a likely place to find him.

For the pragmatist, most questioning about the nature of the metaphysical universe is simply idle speculation since we have no basis for any doctrine of absolute reality beyond our own observations. If, as pragmatists, we wish to know the nature of reality we should, rather than building ontological sandcastles, immerse ourselves in the thick of life, experiencing as much of it as we can. For the pragmatist, any absolute reality is simply our experiential world.

The pragmatic ontology differ in two major respect form that of the realist. The realist says is a world which we can know because of our experience while the pragmatist says that all we can know is our experience. Second, the pragmatic ontology differs from that of the realist in its insistence that “law” is descriptive rather than prescriptive, that “law” do not place demands upon nature and are not intrinsic to nature but are, rather, devices to explain continuities that man has experienced.

Finally, and most important, the pragmatist does not view reality as an abstract “thing”. Rather, it is a process of transaction which involves both doing and undergoing, the two characteristics of experience. For experience is a two way street: first is the doing and second is the process of deriving meaning from the act and its results. Experience demands both dimensions, for the second cannot exist without the first. And the first has no meaning without the second. Without exploration of the meaning and consequences of activity, man would indeed be on what the late radio comedian Fred Allen referred to as a “treadmill to oblivion.

Concept of God in Realism

The realist may be a monist, believing in one substance; a dualist, believing in two; or a pluralist, believing in many. Whichever he is, he believes that all substances have a real existential status independent of the observer. He sees the world as having an orderly nature and composition which exists independent of consciousness but which man may know.

Of the several, different answers to the problem of GOD, it is likely that everyone is upheld by some member of the family of realists. Of course, there are realists who are atheistic. Those who define mind in terms of matter or physical process, and who think of the cosmos in the thoroughly naturalistic sense,ofcourse have no place for God in there metaphysics.

Concept of God in Existentialism

Frederic Nietzsche’s statement, “God is dead,” succinctly expresses the atheistic existentialist’s view on the issue of the existence of a supernatural realm. Nietzsche says: Where is God gone? I mean to tell you! We have killed him – you and I! Do we not here the noise of the grave – diggers who are burying God? God is dead! God remains dead! And we have killed! …. The holiest and the mightiest that the world has hitherto possessed had bled to death under our knife – …. What are our churches now, if they are not the tombs and monuments of God?

Assume that God exists and is all-powerful & all-knowing & all-good. Then also assume that evil exists in the world. Then God is either responsible for the existence of evil, in which case God is Himself evil & not all-good; or else God is not responsible for the existence of evil & yet knew that it was going to happen & couldn’t prevent it–so God is not all-powerful; or else God would have prevented evil but didn’t know it was going to happen, and is therefore not all-knowing. So given evil, God is either not all-good, not all-powerful, not all-knowing, or does not exist.

Concept of God in Humanism

The existence of God was a standard topic for rational debate.. The atheists put forward excellent rejoinders, like the following: “If the universe requires a maker because it undergoes change, even God needs a maker because he sometimes creates, sometimes destroys.” ” They did not believe in the theory of divine creation of the universe by a supernatural power.   Accepting only perception as the valid source of knowledge, the  Humanism disapproved the reality of God. No one has ever seen God and no one can see him in future. There is no heaven, no hell, no God, and there are no objective ethical laws. The only laws binding men are the laws of the state, obedience to which brings rewards and disobedience of which fetches punishment. And the science of the laws of state is the only science worth studying  Humanists believed only in the present existing world. They did not believe in the theory of divine creation of the universe by a supernatural power.

Concept of God in Perennialism

The perennialist believes that all things are composed of from and matter which make up their essences. But in order for things to Be in the world they must have Existence. Essence is the principle of potentiality while Existence is the principal actuality. For the perennialist, Existence is of a higher order than essence. It stands in the Aristotelian ontology. At the top of the hierarchy is Pure Existence or Being. The essence of Being is Existence. For the ecclesiastical perennialist this Being is equated with God. God cannot be know except through faith and revelation Father William McGucken has summed up the Catholic Church’s position nicely when he writes :God is pure actuality

The ontology of the perennialists is a two-sided coin. On the side is the natural world, open to reason. While on other is the supernatural realm open only through intuition, revelation, and fait. Science deals with the first side of the coin, but the spiritual side of the coin is beyond its reach.

The perennialist ontology is teleological, holding that man and of universe are moving toward a prescribed end. This end is realization of the principle of actuality or Absolute Being. The perennialist teleology can be known through faith, dogma, intuition, and revelation. The lay perennialist would find all of the foregoing acceptable. He would not reject the Aristotelian concept of realty. He would agree that the universe has a logic, and he would even accept the concept of Pure Being, as long as it was not given a special religious status or theological stature. The lay perennialist sees not need for equating Being with God, and thus making it something to be feared and worshiped.

Concept of God in Marxism

“Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people.”

. Marxists deny belief in any form of religion. a spiritual intoxicant used by the oppressors to keep the workers in slavery. Religion, they averred, was used to keep the worker passive and patient in the acceptance of his unhappy lot by promising him a reward in the hereafter. “The first requisite for the happiness of the people is the abolition of religion.”― Karl Marx

The next line of attack concentrates on removing the indirect influence coming from the cultural heritage of the past. Museums, libraries, textbooks, and the like are purged of any religious influence. In place of these influences, Marxists enthrone atheistic and materialistic values designed to fill the void left by the removal of religious values.

Since religion is a reality in all cultures Marxists need some way of explaining its presence in society. Marx believed that religion was simply an immature way of dealing with production and consumption of goods in the different types of societies. Engels felt that primitive men could not explain certain phenomena of their own experience, such as dreams, thought, and sensation, and hence placed the source of these activities in a spiritual soul. Since these activities were not bodily they would not die with the body, but live on. Thus, arose the idea of immortality of the soul. The idea of God evolved from the personification of natural forces which ignorant men could not explain by natural means. Eventually, by rationalistic (nonscientific) means, the belief in one God was created by men.

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D.

Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed,

Former PrincipalA.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

Study of the origin, nature, and limits of human knowledge. Nearly every great philosopher has contributed to the epistemological literature. Some historically important issues in epistemology are: (1) whether knowledge of any kind is possible, and if so what kind; (2) whether some human knowledge is innate (i.e., present, in some sense, at birth) or whether instead all significant knowledge is acquired through experience (3) whether knowledge is inherently a mental state (4) whether certainty is a form of knowledge; and (5) whether the primary task of epistemology is to provide justifications for broad categories of knowledge claim or merely to describe what kinds of things are known and how that knowledge is acquired. Epistemology-   (Concise Encyclopedia)

Epistemology, from the Greek words episteme (knowledge) and logos (word/speech) is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature, origin, and scope of knowledge. A branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of knowledge .theory of knowledge: the inquiry into what knowledge is, what can be known, and what lies beyond our understanding; the investigation into the origin, structure, methods, and validity of justification and knowledge; the study of the interrelation of reason, truth, and experience. Epistemology investigates the origin, structure, methods, and integrity of knowledge. In particular, epistemology is the study of the nature, scope, and limits of human knowledge

Epistemology deals with the definition of knowledge and its scope and limitations. It translates from Greek to mean ‘theory of knowledge’. It questions the meaning of knowledge, how we obtain knowledge, how much do we know and how do we have this knowledge.?

Kinds of knowledge

As Epistemology is the investigation into the grounds and nature of knowledge itself. The study of epistemology focuses on our means for acquiring knowledge and how we can differentiate between truth and falsehood. Knowledge can be acquired in numerousforms:

Priori it is possible to know things before we have had experiences — this is known as a priori knowledge because priori means before. It includes  Independent of the knowledge of experience. Belonging to the mind prior to experience. This term is usually applied to principles or judgments whose validity is independent of sense data Knowledge which is self-evident. Principles which, when once understood, are recognized to be true and do not require proof through observation, experience, or experiment.

Posteriori: we can only know things after we have had the relevant experience — this is labeled a posteriori knowledge because posteriori means “after.”It includes  (Inductive thinking beginning with the data of experience opposed to a priori)Knowledge which is based upon experience and observation

Experimental knowledge- It is something to be put to work in experience as a function which carries experience forward satisfactorily.

Theories of the Nature of Knowledge

Agnosticism is the doctrine that holds that one can not know the existence of anything beyond the phenomenon of experience, it may mean no more  than the suspension of judgment on ultimate questions because of insufficient evidence, or it may constitute a rejection of traditional religious tenets. The position that conclusive knowledge of ultimate reality is an impossibility.

Scepticism- Philosophical doubting of knowledge claims in various areas, a challenge to accepted views in science ,morals, and religion. A questioning attitude, toward the possibility of acquiring any knowledge.

The Instruments of Knowledge

Empiricism: knowledge is obtained through experience .The position, or sense-perceptual experience, is the medium through which knowledge is gained. Empiricism, is more uniform in the sense that it denies that any form of rationalism is true or possible. Empiricists may disagree on just how we acquire knowledge through experience and in what sense our experiences give us access to outside reality; nevertheless, they all agree that knowledge about reality requires experience and interaction with reality.

Rationalism: knowledge can be acquired through the use of reason .The position that reason is the chief source of knowledge. Rationalism is not a uniform position. Some rationalists will simply argue that some truths about reality can be discovered through pure reason and thought (examples include truths of mathematics, geometry and sometimes morality) while other truths do require experience. Other rationalists will go further and argue that all truths about reality must in some way be acquired through reason, normally because our sense organs are unable to directly experience outside reality at all.

Intuitionism-A position that knowledge is gained through immediate insight and awareness .Direct or immediate knowledge of self, others,or data .An internal, personal phenomenon.

Autoritarionism-The position that much important knowledge is certified to us by an indisputable authority.

Reveleation –T he position that  God presently reveals himself in the holy books or holy places. A communication of God,s will to man from some external source.

Epistemology of Different philosophies

Epistemology is important because it is fundamental to how we think. Without some means of understanding how we acquire knowledge, how we rely upon our senses, and how we develop concepts in our minds, we have no coherent path for our thinking. A sound epistemology is necessary for the existence of sound thinking and reasoning — this is why so much philosophical literature can involve seemingly arcane discussions about the nature of knowledge.

Epistemology of Idealism

As to knowledge, idealism holds that knowledge is man thinking the thoughts and purposes of this eternal and spiritual reality as they are embodied in our world of fact.

The idealist attempts to find in the universe general principles which can be given the status of universal truths. In order to do this, it is necessary for the idealist to turn inward; to see, as it were, the ocean in a drop of water and the universe  in a grain of sand. Most idealists will accept that notion that man’s being and absolute mind are qualitatively the same, but while we have all the attributes of the Absolute we are like the drop of water and the sea. Just as the drop of water is not the whole ocean, man does reflect, albeit dimly, the Absolute, we can look inward to see the true nature of reality. Idealists believe that all knowledge is independent of sense experience. The act of knowing takes place within the mind. The mind is active and contains innate capacities for organizing and synthesizing the data derived through sensations. Man can know intuitively; that is to say, he can apprehend immediately some truth without utilizing any of his senses. Man can also know truth through the acts of reason by which an individual examines the logical consistency of his ideas. Some Idealists believe that all knowledge is a matter of recall. Plato was one who held this notion. He based this conclusion upon the assumption that the spirit of man is eternal. Whatever he knows is already contained within his spirit. Existence depends upon mind. Every stimulus received by the mind is derived ultimately from God. God is the Infinite Spirit.

Epistemology of Naturalism

Naturalists highlight the value of scientific knowledge the scientific knowledge acquiring through specific observation, accumulation and generalization. They also lay emphasis on the empirical and experimental knowledge. Naturalists also lay stress on sensory training as senses are the gateways to learning

The naturalist rejected the role that intellect or reason play in the knowing process and put forth the claim that the only valid from of knowing process and put forth the claim that he only valid form of knowledge is that derived from experience. For the early naturalists, “experience” chiefly meant that mode of acquiring knowledge based on direct contact of the organism with the physical world thought the senses. The more sophisticated naturalists included the refined modes of knowing used by the empirical sciences. Both, however, imply a denial of reason as a source of knowledge. In practice, both types of experience are evident in naturalistic theory.

Naturalism does not necessarily claim that phenomena or hypotheses commonly labeled as supernatural do not exist or are wrong, but insists that all phenomena and hypotheses can be studied by the same methods and therefore anything considered supernatural is either nonexistent or not inherently different from natural phenomena or hypotheses.

Epistemology of Pragmatism

Pragmatism is basically an epistemological undertaking keynoted by its theory of truth and meaning. This theory  state that truth can be known only through its practical consequences and is thus and individual or a social matter rather than an absolute.

Knowledge is rooted in experience, but experience may be immediate or mediated. Immediate experience is simply “undergoing.” Mediated experience is the interaction of man and his mind with his environment. It requires the use of intelligence. It is intelligence which determines direction. As John Dewey pointed out:

It seemed almost axiomatic that for true knowledge we must have recourse to concepts coming from a reason above experience. But the introduction of the experimental method signified precisely that such operations, carried on under conditions of control, are just the ways in which fruitful ideas about nature are obtained and tested.

Truth in the pragmatic epistemology can be viewed as the production of desired consequences through the five-step process described above. But this does not give truth any special existential status, it simply means that in a particular case something is true.Truth may, therefore, exist in varying degrees. Truth is contingent on, or relative to, set or circumstances. Knowing is an open-ended, ongoing, human activity. As such it is constantly subject to error.

There are three major points of significance to the pragmatic epistemology. First, it is an open-ended, activity, open, to the public and in fact, dependent upon the public test rather than some private metaphysical test. Second, it is subject to error and is continuously being revised in terms of new conditions and new consequences. And, third, it places the ultimate responsibility for truth and knowledge directly upon the shoulders of man. This is a tremendous responsibility and there are many who would rather shirk this responsibility and retreat to the security of a more authoritarian system.

Pragmatism only test of probable truth is what works best in the way of leading us, what fits every part of life best and combine with the collectivity of experience’s demands, nothing being omitted.

Epistemology of Realism

As idealists emphasize the ontological dimensions of philosophy, the realists focus upon epistemological concerns. Basically, there are two different schools of epistemological thought in the realist camp. While both schools admit the existence and externality of the “real” world, each views the problem of how we can know it in a different way. The realists have been deeply concerned with the problems of epistemology. Realists pride themselves on being “hard-nosed” and not being guilty of dealing with intellectual abstractions

The first position or presentational view of knowledge holds that we know the real object as it exists. This is the positions of the New Realists. When one perceives something, it is the same thing that exists in the “real” world. Thus, mind becomes the relationship between the subject and the object. In this school of thought there can be no major problems of truth since the correspondence theory is ideally applicable. This theory states that a thing is true is as it corresponds to the real world. Since knowledge is by definition correspondence, it must be true.

These real entities and relations can be known in part by the human mind as they are in themselves. Experience shows us that all cognition is intentional or relational in character. Every concept is of something; every judgment about something. The realist holds that this is a peculiar relation by which the knowing act becomes united with, in a nonmaterial sense, or directly identified with something really existent …. To know something is to become relationally identified with an existent entity as it is.

Epistemology of Existentialism

The existentialist approach to knowledge is known as the phenomenological method. The atheistic existentialists inherited this method from Husserl. It was adapted further byHeidegger and Sartre to suit their philosophy of “will and action,” especially as it concerns the individual… The phenomenological method consists in the expression of the experiences of consciousness through the media of ordinary language

Existentialists have given little attention to inductive reasoning. Science, they believe, has been one of the major dehumanizing forces in the modern world

In opposition to this cold impersonal approach to knowledge, the existentialist argues that true knowledge is “choosing, actions, living, and dying.”

Epistemology of Humanism

The Renaissance scholar contended that man’s most elevated natural faculty was reason. Revelation was the basis for sacred science but its source was supernatural. Experience gave knowledge of particulars which did not become true knowledge until reason had abstracted the essence of such particulars.

Of the three important sources of knowledge accepted in common by all the orthodox schools (perception, inference, and verbal testimony), the Humanist accepted only perception as the valid source of knowledge and rejected both inference and verbal testimony. Whatever we know through perception is true and real.

The Humanism believed sense perception alone as a means of valid knowledge.Since inference is not a means of valid knowledge, all supersensible things like “destiny,” “soul,” or “afterlife,” do not exist. To say that such entities exist is regarded as absurd, for no unverifiable assertion of existence is meaningful The Humanists did not deny the difference between the dead and the living and recognized both as realities. A person lives, the same person dies: that is a perceived, and hence the only provable, fact

Humanism theory of knowledge is not exactly skepticism or agnosticism, but a fairly thoroughgoing positivism. They accept the reality of whatever we can perceive with our senses and deny the reality of whatever we cannot so perceive.  They did not deny the formal validity of inference, because they used the very laws of inference to show that we could not obtain material truths about the world through inference.

Humanistic theory of knowledge speak that there is no existence of causal laws. Every event is a chance; everything comes into existence and passes out of it according to its own nature. Even this nature is not a universal law; it too is subject to change. The Humanists  make a strong attack on verbal testimony. Verbal knowledge is only knowledge of words and their meanings are based upon inference. But it has already been pointed out that inference is a dicey source of knowledge.. For either reason, verbal testimony is not a reliable source of knowledge.

Humanists recognize that intuitive feelings, hunches, speculation, flashes of inspiration, emotion, altered states of consciousness, and even religious experience, possess  no valid means to acquire knowledge First, knowledge based on verbal testimony is inferential and so vitiated by all the defects of inference. They saw the scriptures as characterized by three faults: falsity, self-contradiction, and tautology. On the basis of such a theory of knowledge,

The Humanists  defended a complete reductive materialism according to which the elements are the only original components of being; all other forms are products of their composition These elements, in turn, were said to be composed of atoms, indivisible units which were conceived as immutable, indestructible and having existed for all time. The properties of any given object were determined by the atoms that comprised it. Likewise, consciousness and the senses were the result of a particular combination of atoms and the proportions in which they were combined. After the death of an organism, this combination disintegrated into elements that then combined with corresponding types of atoms in inanimate nature.. From these alone, when transformed into the body, intelligence is produced—just as the intoxicating power of some herbs is developed from the mixing of certain ingredients. When the body is destroyed, intelligence at once perishes also.

Epistemology of Perennialism

Perennialists see the analytic statement as a self-evident truth that may be know apart from all empirical experience. It is, fro them, a first principal. And according to the perennialists, man is capable of intuiting first principal or having them revealed to him through revelation.

These self-evident truths open, for the perennialist, a whole realm of truth that cannot be reached by science. For the lay perennialist truth can be know through reason and intuition. For the ecclesiastical perennialist there is, added to these two ways of knowing, the certitude of revelation which is given to man. While intuiting is an activity of man, man is simply the recipient of revelation given from a source external to man. Catholic educators rely heavily on the materials of revelation .

To summarize, knowledge is independent of man. Truth can be know by man through reason, but there are certain other truths-… which transcend the “natural” order of the universe – which can only be known through intuition and / or revelation.

Two warnings about the perennialist epistemology might be pointed out. To begin with, first principles should not be confused with clever sayings, with slogans, or with proverbs. While such statements as “a fool and his money are soon parted,” may be commonly true, first principles are always and universally true. An example of such a first principles might be, “Either man has free will or he does not have free will.” Secondly, there is little justification for the argument that the perennialists use of reason is only to support belief. Revelation is simply an independent way of arriving at some truths. The ecclesiastical perennialist would argue that faith is not proof of reason, nor is reason proof of faith. They are simply two routes which, on occasion, lead one to the same truth. For example, the existence of God is accepted on faith despite the five logical proofs of the existence of God given by St. Thomas Aquinas in the Summa Theological.

Epistemology of Marxism

The philosophy of Marxism is not overly concerned with theory of knowledge. For the Marxist, the nature or origin of truth, the modes of knowing are not major problems. However, the Marxist view on some major issues in the theory of knowledge is available.

First, knowing does not consists in an apprehension of the “thing in itself,” but rather a grasp of the things as it exists for us. McFadden interprets the knowing process of Marxist epistemology as a combination of active and passive aspect of mind. On the one hand, the outside world acts upon man’s sense organs and thus provides a continual flow of stimuli to the knowing organism. On the other hand, the mind itself, since it is an integral part of the world (matter), partakes of the same active nature as the world and it self active in the knowing process.. In the process of acquiring knowledge, man is simultaneously changed by the knowledge he acquires changes the world by the knowledge acquired. To understand the world, the know er must perceive the relations which exist among the things of the of the real world and between himself and these external objects.

Therefore Marxist theory of knowledge cannot be classified as either realistic or idealistic but rather as a mixture of both. Consequently truth can never be objective or absolute for its is a “relative experience” which does not have set laws. If this be the case it is easy to understand why the “truths” contained in textbooks are frequently changed by Marxists.

There seems to be no doubt that Marxists have placed a priority on the scientific mode of knowing and understandably so, since in this age of science such knowledge gives power. In fact any knowledge which does not give power to its possessor is  not worthy of the name.

Lenin himself held “that the only path to truth is science which hold the materialist point of view.”Because of the major role science plays in Marxist school one might be led to believe the radical empiricism is the only epidemiological position amenable to Marxists. Such, however, is not the case, for there is a strong stain of rationalism within the system. This rationalistic strain is derived from the Hegelian notion of mind as both the source and unifying principle of experiences. This structure, which itself is a result of his formalized “dialectic”, presumes that the world is inexorable moving through the three states, thesis antithesis, and synthesis.

Epistemology of Analytical Philosophies

The connotations of analytic epistemology vary from one philosopher to another. A significant divergence is found in Karl Poper, who holds that in empirical matters, a judgment must be falsifiable, but is never, in the last analysis verifiable. That is, it is always possible that something will happen which will require abandonment of an idea found tenable until then, but it is never possible that “the last fact is in” so that a proposition has passed beyond question. Popper also finds other categories of judgments besides empirical one acceptable, but holds that they have a different type of meaning.

Analytic philosophy is, then, before all else, a theory of knowledge. While some analysis today denies a bit heatedly that they are positivists, the system is certainly competent in the repudiation of metaphysics. Ryle deals with the question what knowing is by asking what it is to. Know a tune. It is not, says he, being able to tell its name, nor describing it in words, now symbolizing it in musical notation, not being able to sing it, which presupposes talent one knows the tune holds Ryly, if he recognizes it when he hears it. Carnep says that animals that had sense-organs of a type we lack might provide us with new knowledge. Ayer says it is fruitless to try to transcend the limits of possible sense-experience. In short, the theory of knowledge is empiricism knowledge begins at and never transcends the sensory level. As a rule, the analysis philosophers do not argue their empiricism. They take it for granted as part of the Zeitgeist.

Contemporary analytic philosophy differs from the classical empiricism of Hobbes, Loeke and Hume chiefly in its focus on language. Bertrand Russell himself give to analytical learning complains that the traditional analysis’s take a proposition and “worry it like a dog with a bone”. Here we encounter are important point. The linguistic analysists work with sentences, propositions, premises, statements. They typically ask what this or that declarative sentence might “mean”. But ‘sentences’ don’t ‘mean’ things, ‘people’ means things which they try to express in sentences on way to find out what a man means is to ask him.

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D. Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed. Former PrincipalA.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

From the lay-man point of view aesthetics deals with the concept of beauty ,which is the effect one  feel after receiving or perceiving any stimulus, concrete or abstract. This effect can be pleasing or repulsive. Actually the above point refers only about the effect of beauty, but” what” aspect of the basic question is still unanswered. Actually beauty is nothing but equilibrium among the various inherent components in anything, may it be music. Painting literary work, a thought in philosophy or anything in nature including biological structure or social and cultural impact factors.

Aesthetics, the philosophy of art is concerned with questions like, why do we find certain things beautiful?, what makes things great art?, and  so on. the study of value in the arts or the inquiry into feelings, judgments, or standards of beauty and related concepts. Philosophy of art is concerned with judgments of sense, taste, and emotion.

Aesthetics deals with sense, perception and appreciation of beauty. It broadly includes everything to do with appreciating of art, culture and nature. It also examines how the perception of beauty is determined by taste and aesthetic judgment. The practice of defining, criticizing and appreciating art and art forms is based on aesthetics.

Aesthetics involves the conceptual problems associated with the describing the relationships among our feelings and senses with respect to the experience of art and nature .It is the inquiry into feelings, judgments, or standards concerning the nature of beauty and related concepts such as the tragic, the sublime, or the moving—especially in the arts; the analysis of the values of sensory experience and the associated feelings or attitudes in art and nature; the theories developed in les beaux arts.

Actually Aesthetics deals with the nature of the values which  are found in the feeling aspects of experience. The conscious search for the principles governing the creation and appreciation of beautiful things.

There can be few topics more certain to lead to furious discussion than those related to aesthetics; there can be few topics within the realm of aesthetics more certain to arouse normally peaceful artists, philosophers, and aestheticians to a pitch of uncontrolled imagination than that which has given this article its title. The idea that objects of beauty, as well their creation and appreciation, are subject to scrutiny appears abhorrent to most people. There appears a fear exists that clumsy handling might crush the butterfly wings; an idea that analysis may destroy what is intending to study.

Aesthetics in Philosophies

As science and philosophy have common ground in seeking truth, so art and philosophy share a common interest in interpreting experience. Neither of them has the primary interest in discovering facts. The chief concern of both is to interpret, appreciate, and enjoy the meaning aspects of facts.

But there are differences in the nature and scope of the interpretation which each attempts. From the standpoint of scope, the interest of the artist is somewhat more limited than that of the philosopher. When the artist interprets, it is the aesthetic qualities of experience with which he deals. He attends to the feeling tones which he finds in his experience. He seeks to catch these and express them so that others may feel what he feels. He is not primarily concerned with the moral aspects of experience. Questions of truth are also secondary. Most important to him are the aesthetic values, and other considerations are shoved to the side for them. The philosopher, on the other hand, is concerned to interpret other phases of experience. While philosophy is concerned with aesthetic experience, it is also concerned with other values, with reality, with knowledge, and with the kind of action which results in the fullest life. Consequently the philosopher extends his interpretative activity into many phases of experience, in addition to the aesthetic.

When we consider the difference in the nature of the interpretation attempted by art and philosophy, we see that the distinction between the two is far more than one of scope, philosophy being broader and more inclusive than art. But as to scope alone, there is no suggestion here that philosophy is superior to art just because it is more inclusive. Were that intimated by philosophers, there would be as much ground for artists to hold that their first love is superior to philosophy because in its narrower field of interpretation it sometimes runs more deeply.

The artist’s treatment of beauty is actual, the philosopher’s theoretical. The artist enjoys and appreciates, expresses and creates. The philosopher intellectualizes aesthetic experience. He seeks to analyze the experience of beauty so much as to determine what constitute it. Of course the artist may theorize and the philosopher may be a poet; but the artist’s primary endeavor is the actual expression of beauty with an intellectual understanding of its nature.

The artist, it would seem, must be free from self-consciousness in his interpretation, in order that it maybe true aesthetic value to which he gives expression. If he is highly conscious of his own relation to the situation or experience which he is interpreting his expression is likely to be hindered or become affected. It is possible that he is most an artist when he is least conscious that he is giving expression to the beautiful. The philosopher is in an opposite situation. His task of interpretation necessitates that he be highly conscious of himself. He is always a factor in his experience and therefore cannot interpret experience without taking himself into account. His interpretative endeavours must be fully self-conscious and deliberate.

Aesthetics in Idealism

Idealist sees as beautiful the approximation of the Ideal. That which in finite terms attempts to express the Absolute is categorized as aesthetically pleasing. This would appear to leave little ground for creativity since there must be an absolute standard against which all art can be measured. Again, we have the teachers and the ministers defining that which as special intermediaries they recognize as closest to the nature of the Absolute. Thus are art critics born.

In art idealism is the tendency to represent things as aesthetic sensibility would have them rather than as they are When we enjoy a work of art, say the idealists, it is because, on the one hand, we see it as a true representation of the Ideal; and on the other hand, it serves to bring us closer to contract with the Ideal.

Music is considered by some idealists as the highest from of aesthetic creation since it does not represent anything in the phenomenal or existent world, but instead cuts across it to the heart of the Absolute. The artist should, according to his school for thought, attempt to idealize e world to us, that is , to present its inner meaning rather than to portray it as it appears to the senses, to capture its inner essence, its oneness with the Ideal.

Aesthetics in Naturalism

The principles enunciated above regarding the ethical values of naturalism hold also for aesthetic values. They, too, are rooted in nature and do not depend on any source outside nature for their validation. Nature itself provides the criterion for beauty there is no need to call upon universal principles such as unity and proportion to judge beauty. A landscape is beautiful simply because it is nature. A painting is beautiful because it reflects nature, not because it elevates man above nature.

For naturalists, as could be surmised, aesthetic experience and the values it yields are both purely natural in character and do not involve any spiritual or supernatural factors. First of all, according to naturalism, the subject who is engaged by aesthetic experience is a child of Nature. While it takes a high degree of development to yield the kind of complex nervous system which can communicate with words and other symbols, and retain meanings long enough to interrelate them in such a way as to yield aesthetic enjoyment of an object, yet that is what Nature has yielded in man. “A pattern of responses of high complexity of co-ordination is possible.” Vivas says, “because in the process of evolutionary development a nervous system, highly centralized, came into being.” Man, the subject who has aesthetic experiences, is a sentient organism developed by Nature, which is capable of centring his meanings in such a way as to experience aesthetic values. These values, therefore, do not transcend Nature; they are events in the experience of this highly developed organism which is the result alone of evolutionary processes at work in Nature.

There is also a minor sense in which aesthetic values are natural. This is that they are not superior values which only a few select people are capable of enjoying. They are values which touch areas where we all live; they are natural because they are “native in the ordinary experience of all men.”

Aesthetics in Pragmatism

The pragmatist’s standards of art and beauty differ from those of the other philosophies we have discussed in that they do not exist in some separate realm. What is beautiful is simply what we find beautiful in our own experience, what has the power to move us and to make us feel deeply. Art is a form in which an artist describes his own personal experience to the viewer. But the description need not be detailed or an exact reproduction of what the artist has seen.

In every work of art, however, these meanings are actually embodied in a material which thereby becomes the medium for their expression. This fact constitutes the peculiarity of all experience that is definitely aesthetic. Its imaginative quality dominates, because meanings and values that are wider and deeper than the particular here and now in which they are anchored are realized by way of an object that is physically efficacious in relation to other objects. A more current way of saying this would be, “the medium is the message.”

The test of a work of art is whether or not it can stir the viewer and communicate to him the experience with all (or at least many) of the complex feelings and ramifications the artist is attempting to convey. Thus, the public test of a work of art is whether or not the artist has communicated his experience to us and whether others share the sense of pleasure and esthetic satisfaction we receive from a work of art.

Aesthetics in Realism

There is a close relation between the refinement of perception and the ability to enjoy aesthetic values. It holds that ultimate values are essentially subjective. In other words, he believes that no goal or object is bad or good in itself. Only the means for acquiring such goals or objects can be judged good or bad insofar as they enable the individual or the group to attain them.

Since the realist place so much value on the natural law and the moral law as found in the behavior or phenomena in nature, it is readily apparent that the realist will find beauty in the orderly behavior of nature. A beautiful art form reflects the logic and order of the universe. Art should attempt to reflect or comment on the order of nature. The more faithfully and art form does this, the more aesthetically pleasing it is. Art may extract out that which is essential in the natural order and reduce or remove that which is only peripheral. Thus, in painting, a realist may enjoy work ranging from the “imitation of nature “ to the most abstract.

Aesthetics in Existentialism

Another distinctive feature of the aesthetical views of existentialists lies in their use of the art forms, especially literature, drama, and painting, as media for communicating philosophical doctrines.The central place is given to ‘humanities’, poetry, drama, music, art, novels etc. as they exert the human impact in revealing man’s inherent quilt, sin, suffering, tragedy, death, late and love. Humanities have spiritual power. Art and Literature, they say should be taught, as they represent a priori (cause effect) power of human nature.

Aesthetics in Humanism

The principal enunciated above regarding the ethical or moral values of the Renaissance hold also for aesthetic values, at least in the sense that these values are rooted in human nature. Art in all its forms, but especially literature, is the most excellent product of the human mind. Following the lead of the Greek and Roman artists and authors the masters of the Renaissance glorified man human nature. The exemplars of style, of form, and the like were from classical masterpieces. In cases where the vernacular was used in literature, such as in Dante’s inferno, the ancient writing provided the themes and to some extent the style. The painting, sculpture, and architecture of the Renaissance followed closely the realistic form of ancient pieces. The works of Van Eyck, da Vinci, and Michelangelo might be cited as examples.

Aesthetics in Marxism

In the field of aesthetics, the great interest and productivity of the people of Communist countries in the fine arts puts the American to shame. The handling of the artist and the development of a theory of art presented One group of extremist demanded that all art works, especially literature, preach the party line. In other words, the arts should be considered as vehicles of Communist doctrines and no deviation from these doctrines should be tolerated. The more moderate group, which included Trotsky and Bukharin felt that the arts could thrive only when the artist is given sufficient freedom to produce creative works; creativity is stifled if the artist is made to produce according to political specifications. The engineer, the agricultural expert, and the economist could be bound by Communist doctrines but the artist could not be so bound. Of course, the artist could never be permitted to use his art as a political weapon against the revolution.

Aesthetics in  Perennialism

Just as man tends towards knowledge and morality, he tends towards beauty. We know something is beautiful when we respond to it immediately and with pleasure. Man tends to be creative; he desires to give to his material the meaning that is potential in it. Art, therefore, is immediately self-evident. The artist intuits meaning rather than approaching it logically, although he may appreciate a work of art through the pleasure it gives the intellect.

Aesthetics in Analytic Philosophies –

The analyses use those art forms, especially literature, drama and painting, as media for communicating philosophical doctrines. The History of philosophy records no parallel of a school of thought which uses the arts as the avenue for putting their beliefs into the cultural stream of the age. It is true that Plato, St Augustine and others have produced works which are considered great literature. Also great artists such as Michelangelo, Dante, have reflected certain metaphysical beliefs in their masterpieces. But in both instances these great thinkers or artists were not attempting to be both professional artist and philosopher.

It is very feature of analytic philosophy that makes it difficult to understand, namely the use of poetic Language and other art forms express the ideas of technical philosophy. The neophyte, in his first attempt at reading the Analysis’s, is completely baffled by the terminology and the concepts. A good background in scholastic philosophy for example, seems to be of little help. It fact a student of modern literature is much more “at home” with Analysis’s philosophy than is the student of philosophy.

As far as the main characteristic of the Analytic theory of the art, First and foremost it must be noted that there are no rationalistic or empirical criteria for art. Nor can Social, political or religious norms be applied to the art forms. Art is purely subjective-it is its own master it is its own criterion, stated negatively, this view means that the artist is not bound by such criteria as Symmetry, unity, harmony or definiteness. Nor he is expected to portray the ‘Real World’, as it exists independent of his own perception of it. Also his art products need not promote socialism, democracy, religion, or a philosophy of life.

The themes of Analysis’s art are most interesting since they give live portrayal to the conditions of “existent man”. Their plays and novels depict anguish, abandonment, despair, nausea and death.It might be worth noting that artistic expression is somehow tied in with the phenomenological method. What the Analysis artist seems to be doing is looking in upon his inner most desires and feelings and expressing these through the medium of arts.

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D.Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed. FormerPrincipal, A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

“Ever since Plato most philosophers have considered it part of their business to produce ‘proofs’ of immortality and the existence of God. They have found fault with the proofs of their predecessors — Saint Thomas rejected Saint Anselm’s proofs, and Kant rejected Descartes’ — but they have supplied new ones of their own. In order to make their proofs seem valid, they have had to falsify logic, to make mathematics mystical, and to pretend that deepseated prejudices were heaven-sent intuitions.”

( Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1945. )

There is a wide misconception that philosophy is a kind of religion. Is religion just a type of philosophy? Is philosophy a religious activity? There seems to be some confusion at times over just whether and how religion and philosophy should be distinguished from each other — this confusion is not unjustified because there are some very strong similarities between the two. This misconception may be corrected at the outset.Philosophy is not religion, nor does it commonly attempt to take the place of religion. Philosophers may and do oppose religion, but they do not propose philosophy totake its place in kind. For example in philosophy we use the third person in speaking ofGod, but that in religion experience the third person is supplanted by the second person and we must say ‘Thou”.

There are atleast three essentials which might be described as constituting religion.

The first is the experience of worship,the feeling of union with God the believer enjoys as he prays privately or worship in the sanctuary. In it a sense of giving or adoration, and a sense of receiving or being blessed.

Second is the community of  believers, the chosen people, the elect, the saved, the redeemed. It is company of persons varying, according to the occasion, from a small local gathering to alarge assembly in which far-removed geographic areas  are represented. It is accompany which for the most part is united and agreed in certain essential beliefs.

The third is the constructive program of service and endeavour maintained by the religious groups. It may be movement of reforms, an evangelizing program, a charitable service, or a scheme of social reconstruction.

The major differences between religion and philosophy  is the need for rituals. While almost all the religions in the world have certain set of rituals which are to be followed by the followers of the respective religions, philosophy does not have any sort of rituals, as it is only a way of thinking. So, while a person can be philosophical without having to do any sort of practices or rituals, it is almost impossible for him to be religious without doing any sort of rituals or practices stated in that particular religion. This is one big difference which makes people say that religion and philosophy are mutually exclusive and cannot co-exist.

Another fact is that philosophy tends to emphasize just the use of reason and critical thinking whereas religions may make use of reason, but at the very least they also rely on faith, or even use faith to the exclusion of reason.  There are any number of philosophers who have argued that reason alone cannot discover truth or who have tried to describe the limitations of reason in some manner.

Applying this pattern to the case of philosophy may be an adherent of religion and participate in all of these essentials of religious experience. But in his philosophizing, strictly and narrowly defined, his worship, is an intellectual love of God or a thinking of the thoughts of God after Him. The philosopher’s fellowship with others of his own profession in philosophical societies, is based on the common ground of honest search for truth rather than upon agreement in specific beliefs. And  this practical social endeavours, may be in religious uplift or in areas of everyday life other than religion. He may, however, cloister himself completely and prefer abstract thought to practical social effort.

Inter relationship among Philosophy and Religion

The questions discussed in both religion and philosophy tend to be very much alike. Both religion and philosophy wrestle with problems like: What is good? What does it mean to live a good life? What is the nature of reality? Why are we here and what should we be doing? How should we treat each other? What is really most important in life?

The fact that religion and philosophy are distinct does not mean that they are entirely separate. Because they both address many of the same issues, it isn’t uncommon for a person to be engaged in both religion and philosophy simultaneously. They may refer to their activity with only one term and their choice of which term to use may reveal quite a lot about their individual perspective on life; nevertheless, it is important to keep their distinctness in mind when considering them.

A-Philosophy examines the bases of belief upon which religion is founded and it may be virtue of its questioning contribute added intellectual basis for religion. Philosophy, specializes in the field of belief.It seeks to examine all beliefs and evaluates which are those whose foundations are firm. Because of this, it may seem to be antagonistic to religious faith.In the cases of many philosophers, this is ofcourse true. In philosophizing generally, however, this all-inclusive questioning is not necessarily biased; it is the result of the intention to inquire into truth with an attitude of impartiality. It is assumed, of course, that the truth is best discovered when the searcher is willing to subject his own predispositions to examination.

B- Since religion is a realm of experience in which the experiencing subject is related to reality greater tham and beyond himself, philosophy can scarcely ignore this area of human experience as on of the sources of data with which its interpretative activity must begin. Majority of philosophies hold that religion is an independent and unique realm of experience yielding its own facts.

C- One contribution which philosophy makes to religion is to offer help in understanding the receptacle into which divine truth and life come. For philosophy studies human thought, its categories  and its various patterns of organization; and its human thought and experience which receive the impact of the divine; it is not something other than the human thought and experience. Just as the philosopher can not wisely overlook the data yielded by religious experience, similarly the religionist can not afford to exclude the analytically methods of philosophy and the helps toward  integration implicit in the structure of philosophy. For philosophy deals with the structure of human thought and experience, which in turn are the recipients and bearers of the divine inspiration.

D- Philosophy may also do much to refine religious belief. Frequently there is little distinction between folklore on the one hand and essential truth on the other. So many times  there are serious inconsistencies in religious thought. This is because the rational implications of beliefs are not followed through logically. Accordingly, the culling of truth from the religious heritage, and the resolving of inconsistencies in religious doctrine, are two of the important refinements of religion to which philosophy can contribute much.

E-Another contribution of philosophy to religion is the help it can offer in understanding the thought forms of people. Too commonly the gap between those who preach the massage of religion and the multitudes who listen to them is the result of misunderstanding. In part it is the old problem of speaking different languages; the vocabulary is common but the meanings are different. To the extent that those who profess and proclaim religion understand the systems of thought which have won and now hold the allegiances of men, they will be able to make their message understood. It is the study of philosophy which will provide this extension of understanding more than anything else.

F- But there is another significant way in which philosophy is related to religion. This is that religion may readily become the appropriate field of practical endeavour in which a given philosophy may find expression. Apparently the philosophy which normally finds its sphere of practice in religion would have to be atheistic one. That is, it must be a philosophy which having examined belief and inquired of truth, holds that reality is ultimately a Person. In other words, it must be a philosophy which believes in God in the sense indicated by the common usage of the word “God”. The  religions have rituals. In religions, there are ceremonies for important life events (birth, death, marriage, etc.) and for important times of the year (days commemorating spring, harvest, etc.). Philosophies, however, do not have their adherents engage in ritualistic actions.

G- One of the major similarities between religion and philosophy is that they both deal with human life, human mind, its existence in the universe, the meaning of life, the ultimate truth, and so on. Both tend to make existence in this universe a lot less complicated by addressing issues such as knowledge, truth, life, and existentialism. Thus, one can always argue that both religion and philosophy are one and the same and we just call them by different names. But it is not entirely true.

H-  Philosophies provide rational arguments — those arguments may not also prove valid or successful, but it is the effort which differentiates their work from religion. In religion, and even in religious philosophy, reasoned arguments are ultimately traced back to some basic faith in God, gods, or religious principles which have been discovered in some revelation.

I-Most religions tend to include some sort of belief in what can only be described as the “miraculous”, events which either defy normal explanation or which are, in principal, outside the boundaries of what should occur in our universe .Miracles may not play a very large role in every religion, but they are a common feature which you don’t find in philosophy. Certainly philosophers discuss the phenomena of religious awe, feelings of mystery, and the importance of sacred objects, but that is very different from having feelings of awe and mystery around such objects within philosophy.

There are enough similarities that religions can be philosophical  and philosophies can be religious . Does this mean that we simply have two different words for the same fundamental concept? No; there are some real differences between religion and philosophy which warrant considering them to be two different types of systems even though they overlap in places.

Of course , as will be seen, there are contemporary thinkers having religious interests who use the word ‘God’ in a religious setting, but by it they refer in a general way to the object, or concept, collection of values, or composite of forces, as the case may be which is worshipped. Doing this, they of course apply some other philosophy of religion than that which harmonizes with the essential concept of God which the religious tradition has held.

Socrates said, “the un-examined life is not worth living.” The disciplines of philosophy and religion examine our lives by investigating the most basic concepts and categories of our self-understanding: true and false, right and wrong, real and imaginary, sacred and profane.

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D. Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed. Former Principal,A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

A people without the knowledge of their past history, origin and culture is like a tree without roots.

Marcus Garvey

There are a great many different definitions of the word culture. The word culture in its broadest sense should not be confused with culture defined as those special trappings which set apart one social class from another.For the anthropologist or sociologist culture consists of material and non-material products of  human endeavor It is our total man made environment.

Culture is the fruit of human civilization, in both material and non-material aspects. It includes technology and its related sciences, as well as arts, literature and heritage, including religion

Culture is a system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviours and artefacts that the members of society use to cope with their world and with one another, and which are transmitted from generation to generation through learning.

As commonly used in the social science, culture refers to a social heritage. It is the distinctive way of life of a group of people and their complete design for living. Culture consists in the instruments constituted by man to assist him in satisfying his wants.

Culture not only includes the ‘things’ of life, but the ‘ways’ of life as well. It includes our laws, our values which determine so many of our laws, our books, our eating habits our foods, our art works, our furniture, and to a great degree, our likes and dislikes. Members of a culture are bound by it to a degree for greater than they imagine.  They behave in culturally sanctioned or approved ways because they are unable to imagine any others-. They behave as they do because a culture is a complex intertwining of groups and subgroups which determines patterns of action for members of the group.

In view of the above, we find that culture has a hard-hitting, wide-ranging effect and influence on social development.  There is no doubt that traditional culture some time  play a negative role in the progress of society, and led to a situation of backwardness. But the idea of culture has a rich intellectual background as it refers manly to ideas of enlightens and refinement. This humanistic view of culture emphasizes creativity and excellence.

Meaning of the term “CULTURE”

Every society has its own culture or social heritage. It has been used with various meanings. The concept of the culture was discovered recently as its significance has been realize more than ever. The concept originated with anthropologists but has been later on developed further in many other ways.

Etymologically speaking the term “culture” has been derived from a Latin word “cultura” which means ‘to till’ or ‘to cultivate’. Thus the term culture means something to be cultivated among the people. It means culture is a process of cultivating high social, moral and spiritual values, manners and etiquette, good habits, beliefs and practices among the people with the view to modify or improve their behavior.   Culture is complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs and any other capabilities, and habits acquired by man as member of society. The body thoughts and knowledge both theoretical and practical, which only man can possess.

B. Malinowski has defined culture as the “cumulative creation of man”. He also regarded culture as the handwork of man and the medium through which he achieves his ends.

Similarly  according to  Graham Wallas, “culture is an accumulation of thoughts, values and objects, it is the social heritage acquired by us from preceding generations through learning as distinguished from the biological heritage which is passed on to us automatically through the genes”.

Consequently, we can say that culture is a board term that includes in itself all our walks of life, our modes of behavior, our philosophies and ethics, our morals and manners, our customs and traditions, our religious, political, economic and other types of activities. Culture includes all that man has acquired in his individual and social life.

Key components of Culture

Culture, in this sense, has key components, as follows:

1. Culture, in its essence, is immaterial. It is a way of life and a system of conduct. Even though, it includes material objects related to human activity.

2. Culture is not an entity isolated from societal progress and history. It is an ongoing and cumulative process.

3. Culture is not confined to a certain generation in terms of its effects and influence. In fact, these effects and influence seep through generations and they are handed down from one generation to another.

Culture and Education

The relationship between culture and education can be traced back to the origin of human life on the earth There is very close rather intimate relationship between culture and education. Both are so interdependent as  neither can developed nor implemented without the help of the other.

Both culture and education are so closely related to each other that they both have a common goal to achieve i.e. the improvement or modification of the behavior of an individual. Both culture and education aim at making the life of an individual worth living.

Both culture and education are sometimes considered as synonyms terms. Culture serves as an informal type of education whereas education serves as a formal type of culture therefore, it is rightly said that an educated person is he who is a cultured person and a cultured person is he who is an educated person. Both culture and education play equally important role in helping the individual in making his proper adjustment in the society.

Culture gives high social, moral and spiritual values and education inculcates these high social, moral and spiritual values among the students.

Functions of Education towards Culture

Education through all its formal, informal and non-formal agencies contributes a lot to the development of the culture. Some of the important functions of education are  as under :–

(i) Preservation of the culture : Education through its formal and informal agencies plays a significance role in preserving all those values, customs, traditions, beliefs, usages, practices, knowledge and experiences achievements and non-materialistic spheres which are worthwhile in the present age.

(ii) Transmission of culture : All the agencies of education play an important role in transmitting the culture from one generation to another. It is due to the role of education that the thousands of years old culture could be transmitted to the present age to a great extent.

(iii) Promotion or enrichment of the culture : Education not only preserves and transmits the old culture to the coming generation  in the same form but it also plays an important role in the enrichment or promotion of the culture by adding the new experiences, knowledge, inventions and discoveries in the field of science and technology and other achievements made by the society to the culture before transmitting it to the next generation.

(iv) Refinement of the culture : Education also brings refinement in the centuries old culture by deleting or excluding those customs, traditions and practices which have either lost their utility or scientifically discarded.

(v) Diffusion of culture : Education plays a significant role in bringing a diffusion among the culture not of different sections of society within the country but also of different countries of the world. Mass media as an informal agency of education is playing an important role in bringing the diffusion of the culture of different countries of the world.

Functions of Culture towards Education

(i) Fixing the aims of education : Culture of the community plays a significant role in determining the aims of education for that community. It is rightly said that “as is the culture of the community so will be the aims of education” for example if there is a diversified culture the aim of education will be to bring unity in diversity. But if there is a single type of culture the aim of education will be to preserve and transmit the culture in the same form to the next generation.

(ii) Framing the curriculum : Culture plays a significant role in framing the curriculum for a particular system of education. Curriculum is drawn from the culture of the community in the form of sum total of experiences, knowledge and achievements made by the human race in different spheres of life which is divided into different components called subjects like language, literature, art and craft, social sciences, natural sciences etc.

(iii) Cultural and instructional techniques: Culture also plays an important role in selecting and applying the various methods and techniques for teaching e.g. traditional methods of teaching are applied in the country where there is a traditional culture whereas scientific tools and techniques are applied in the country where there is sciences based culture.

(iv) Teacher – taught Relations : Culture playas significant role in determining the teacher taught relations in the system of education. For example, in an idealistic culture like that of India teacher serves as a spiritual and intellectual father of the students who serves as a source of inspiration for the students whereas in the western culture teacher serves as a friend and guide for the students.

In the light of above discussion we may conclude that both culture and education are so closely related that one cannot be thought in the absence of the other.

Preservation of one’s own culture does not require contempt or disrespect for other cultures.
Cesar Chavez

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D. Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed. Former Principal, A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

It is not possible for all to fix the mind on the Absolute. A concrete form is necessary for the vast majority of human being for practising concentration. To behold God everywhere and to practise the presence of God is not possible for the ordinary man. Idol worship is the easiest form of worship for the human beings. The material image calls up the mental idea. Steadiness of mind is  can easily be obtained by image worship. The worshipper will have to associate the ideas of infinity, omnipotence, omniscience, purity, perfection, freedom, holiness, truth and omnipresence with the form of worship he chooses.

When something becomes so important to someone that it drives the behaviour and commands the  emotions, he is worshipping it. A symbol is absolutely indispensable for fixing the mind. The mind wants a prop to lean upon. It cannot hold a conception of the Absolute in the initial stages. Without the help of some external aid the mind cannot be centralised. In the beginning, therefore, concentration or meditation is not possible without a symbol.

Actually everyone is an Idol Worshipper. Idol worship is not peculiar to Hinduism. Christians worship the Cross. They have the image of the Cross in their mind. The Muslims keep the image of the Kaaba stone when they kneel and do prayers. The people of the whole world, save a few Yogis , are all worshippers of idols. They keep some image or the other in their mind.The mental image also is a form of idol. The difference is not one of kind, but only of degree. All worshippers, however intellectual they may be, generate a form in the mind and make the mind dwell on that image. Even a hindu Yogi  has the symbol Om to fix his wandering mind.

Everyone is thus an idol worshipper. Pictures, drawings,books etc., are only forms of idols. A gross mind needs a concrete symbol as a prop and a subtle mind requires an abstract symbol. It is not only the pictures or images in stone and in wood that are idols, but dialectics and great leaders also become idols.

A pseudo-intelectual feels ashamed to bow before an idol in the temple. He feels that his attitude of oneness will evaporate if he prostrates himself. Just observe the lives of the reputed Tamil saints—Appar, Sundarar, Sambandhar, and others. They all had the highest  attitude of oneness,realisation, but they saw Lord Shiva everywhere. They visited all temples of Shiva, prostrated before the idol and sang hymns which are on record till today. The sixty-three Nayanar saints solely practised the worship of the idols of Shiva and attained God-consciousness thereby. They swept the floor of the temple, collected flowers, made garlands for the Lord and put lights in the temple. They were illiterate, but attained the highest realisation. They were practical Yogis and their hearts were saturated with pure devotion. They were embodiments of Karma Yoga. All practised the Yoga of synthesis. The idol was all consciousness to them, not a mere block of stone.

Madhusudana Swami, who had  attitude of oneness realisation, who beheld oneness of the Self and who had the feeling of oneness with all creation, was intensely attached to the form of Lord Krishnawith flute in his hands.Tulsidas realised the all-pervading essence. He had Cosmic Consciousness. He communed with the all-pervading, formless Lord. And yet, his passion for Lord Rama with bow in His hand didnot vanish. Tukaram also had the same cosmic experience . He sings in one of his songs: “I see my Lord all-pervading, just as sweetness pervades the sugar-cane”, and yet, he always speaks of his Lord Vittala of Pandharpur with His hands on the hips. Mirabai also realised her identity with the all-pervading Krishna, and yet she was not tired of repeating again and again, “My Giridhar Nagar!”

From the above facts, we can clearly infer that one can realise God through worship of the idol; that the idol is a great aid for the realisation of the Lord in His all-pervading, formless aspect also; that the worship of the idol is very essential for the purpose of concentration and meditation in the beginning; and that such a worship is not in any way a hindrance to the attainment of God-realisation.

Those who vehemently attack idol worship are groping in extreme darkness and ignorance, and have no real knowledge of worship. They enter into unnecessary, vain debates and discussions against idol worship to show that they are learned persons. They have not done any real Sadhana at all. They are persons who have made idle talking and tall talk their habit and profession. They have ruined themselves. They have unsettled the minds of countless persons and ruined them also. The whole world worships idols alone in some form or another.

The mind is disciplined in the beginning by fixing it on a concrete object or symbol. When it is rendered steady and subtle, it can be fixed on an abstract idea such as Aham Brahma Asmi. As one advance in meditation, the form melts in the formless and one becomes absorbed in the formless essence. The worship of idols is, therefore, not contrary to the view of Vedanta. It is rather an aid to the highest attitude of oneness realisation.

Idol worship makes concentration for man simple and easy. You can bring before your mind’s eye the great pastimes of the Lord in His particular incarnation in which you view Him. This is one of the easiest modes of Self-realisation. It is one that suits the majority of people today. Just as the picture of a famous warrior evokes heroism in your heart, so also a look at the picture of God will elevate your mind to divine heights. Just as the child develops the maternal feeling by caressing, nursing and protecting its doll made of rags, and suckles it in an imaginary manner, so also the devotee develops the feeling of devotion by worshipping the idol and concentrating on it.

Idols are not the idle fancies of sculptors, but are shining channels through which the heart of the devotee is attracted to God and flows towards Him. Though apparently the image is worshipped, the devotee feels the presence of the Lord in it and pours out his devotion unto it. It is the appalling ignorance of the modern sensual man that clouds his vision and prevents him from seeing Divinity in the lovely and enchanting idols of His forms.

The divinity of the all-pervading God is vibrant in every atom of creation. There is not a speck of space where He is not. Why do you then say that He is not in the idols? There are many who would glibly say: “Oh, God is an all-pervading formless Being. How can He be confined to this idol!” Are these people ever conscious of His omnipresence? Do they always see Him and Him alone in everything? No. It is their ego that prevents them from bowing to the idols of God and with that motive they put this lame excuse forward.

Empty vessels make much sound. A practical man who does meditation and worship, who is full of knowledge and real devotion, always keeps silent. He influences and teaches others through silence. He alone knows whether an idol is necessary in the beginning of concentration or not.

However intellectual one may be, one cannot concentrate without the help of some symbol. An intellectual or a learned person may say on account of his pride and vanity: “I do not like an idol. I do not wish to concentrate on a form.” He cannot concentrate on the formless One. He thinks that people will laugh at him when they come to know that he is meditating on an idol. He never does any meditation on the formless One. He simply talks and argues and poses. He wastes his life in unnecessary discussions only. An ounce of practice is better than tons of theories.

Intellect is a hindrance in the vast majority of intellectual persons. They say that the existence of Brahman is guess-work, the superconscious state is a bluff and Self-realisation is animagination of the persons claiming attitude of oneness. Deluded souls! They are steeped in ignorance. They are carried awayby their secular knowledge which is mere husk when compared to the knowledge of the Self. There is no hope of salvation for such people. First, their wrong impressions should be flushed by good impressions through Satsang. Then only will they realise their mistakes. May the Lord bestow on them clear understanding and thirsting for real knowledge!

The idol is a substitute or symbol. The image in a temple, though it be made of stone, wood or metal, is precious for a devotee as it bears the mark of his Lord, as it represents something whichhe holds holy and eternal. A flag is only a small piece of painted cloth, but to a soldier it stands for something that he holds very dear. He is prepared to give up his life in defending his flag. Similarly, the image is very dear to a devotee. It speaks to him in its own language of devotion. Just as the flag arouses martial valour in the soldier, so also the image arouses devotion in the devotee. The Lord is superimposed on the image and the image generates divine thoughts in the worshipper.

A piece of ordinary white paper or coloured paper has no value. You throw it away. But, if there is the stamp of the Government on the paper (currency note), you keep it safe in your money pocket or bank. Even so, an ordinary piece of stone has no value for you. You throw it away. But, if you behold the stone idol of Lord Krishna at Pandharpur or any other idol in shrines, you bow your head with folded palms, because there is the stamp of the Beloved Lord on the stone. The devotee superimposes on the stone idol his own Lord and all His attributes.

When your devotion and meditation become intense and deep, you do not see the stone image. You behold the Lord only who is pure Consciousness. Image worship is very necessary for beginners. For a beginner, the idol is an absolute necessity. By worshipping the idol, the Lord is pleased. The idol is made up of the five elements. The five elements constitute the body of the Lord.

The idol remains an idol, but the worship goes to the Lord. If you shake hands with a man, he is highly pleased. You have touched only a small part of his body and yet he is happy. He smiles and welcomes you. Even so, the Lord is highly pleased when a small portion of His cosmic body is worshipped. An idol is a part of the body of the Lord. The whole world is His body. The devotion goes to the Lord. The worshipper superimposes on the image the Lord and all His attributes. He does the

sixteen forms of reverence to the Lord. First, the Presence of the Deity is invoked. Then a seat is offered, the feet are washed, water is offered, and then hospitality is offered. The idol is bathed, dressed and invested with the sacred thread. Sandal paste is applied to its forehead, flowers are offered, and incense is burnt. Then a lamp is lit and waved before the Deity. Food is now offered, together with the burning of camphor. A gift of gold is offered. Finally (the sixteenth step), the Deity is bidden farewell.

In these external forms of worship, the inner love finds expression. The wandering mind is fixed now in this form of worship. The aspirant gradually feels the nearness of the Lord. He attains purity of heart and slowly annihilates his egoism.

To the worshipper who has faith in the symbol, any kind of image is the body of the Lord, be it made of stone, clay, or brass, or be it a picture, drawing, etc. Such worship can never be idolatry. All matter is a manifestation of God. God is present in everything. Everything is an object of worship, for all is a manifestation of God who is therein worshipped. The very act of worship implies that the object of worship is superior and conscious. This way of looking at things must be attained by the devotee. The untutored mind must be trained to view things in the above manner.

For a devotee or a sage, there is no such thing as insentient matter. Everything is consciousness. The devotee actually beholds the Lord in the idol. Narsi Mehta was put to the test by a king. The king said, “O Narsi! if you are a true, sincere devotee of Lord Krishna, if, as you say, the idol is Lord Krishna Himself, let this idol move.” According to the prayer of Narsi Mehta, the idol did move.

The idol of Krishna played with Mirabai. It was full of life and consciousness for her.When Appayya Dikshita went to the Tirupati temple in South India, the Vaishnavas refused to grant him admission. The next morning they found that the idol of Lord Vishnu in the temple had changed to the idol of Lord Shiva. The priest was greatly astonished and startled. He asked pardon and prayed to Appayya Dikshita to change the idol again to that of Lord Vishnu. Kanaka Das was a great devotee of Lord Krishna in Udipi, in the district of South Kanara, in South India. He was not allowed to enter the temple on account of his low birth. Kanaka Das wentround the temple and saw a small window at the back of the temple. He seated himself in front  of the window. He was soon lost in singing songs in praise of Lord Krishna. Many people gathered round him. They were very powerfully attracted by the sweet melody of his music and the depth of his devotion. Lord Krishna turned round to enable Kanaka Das to get His Darshan. The priests were struck with wonder. Even today, pilgrims are shown the window and the place where Kanaka Das sat and sang.

The idol is the same as the Lord, for it is the vehicle of the expression of the Mantra-consciousness which is the Deity. The devotee should regard the idol in the temple with the same attitude of respect and reverence that he would evince should the Lord Himself appear before him in person and speak to him in articulate sound.

Regular worship and other modes of demonstrating our inner feeling of recognition of divinity in the idol unveil the Divinity latent in it. This is truly a wonder and a miracle. The picture comes to life. The idol speaks. It will answer your questions and solve your problems. The God in you has the power to awaken the latent Divinity in the idol. It is like a powerful lens that focuses the sun’s rays onto a bundle of cotton. The lens is not fire and the cotton is not fire either, nor can the sun’s rays by themselves burn the cotton. However, when all three are brought together in a particular manner, fire is generated and the cotton is burnt. Similar is the case with the idol, the aspirant, and the all-pervading Divinity. The idol is the lens which brings into focus the all-pervading rays of Divinity and lights up the aspirant with divine illumination.

God is enshrined in the idol. From here, He will protect you in a special manner. The idol will perform miracles. The place where it is installed is at once transformed into a temple, nay, a Vaikunta or Kailas in reality. Those who live in such a place are freed from miseries, from diseases, from failures and from worldliness itself. The awakened Divinity in the idol acts as a guardian angel blessing all, conferring the highest good on those who bow to it.

The idol is only a symbol of the Divine. A devotee does not behold therein a block of stone or a mass of metal. It is an emblem of God for him. He visualises the indwelling Presence in the idol. All the sixty-three Nayanar saints of South India attained God-realisation through worship of the Shiva Linga, the image of Lord Shiva. For a devotee, the image is a mass of consciousness. He draws inspiration from it. It guides him. It talks to him. It assumes the human form to help him in a variety of ways.

The image of Lord Shiva in the temple at Madura in South India helped the fuel-cutter and the old woman. The image in the temple at Tirupati assumed a human form and gave witness in thecourt to help His devotees. These are marvels and mysteries. Only the devotees understand them.

Idol worship is only the beginning of religion. Certainly it is not its end, The same Hindu scriptures which prescribe idol worship for beginners, also speak of meditation on the Infinite or the Absolute and contemplation on the significance of Tat Twam Asi for advanced aspirants.

There are different grades of worship. The supreme state is Self-realisation. Second in rank is meditation on the Supreme Self. The third is the worship of symbols. The fourth is the performance of rituals and pilgrimages to holy places. The Shastras, the Gurus, are like kind mothers. They take hold of the hands of the aspirants and take them step by step till they are established in the highest superconscious state. Glory to the Hindu Rishis who take aspirants from the lower to the higher form of worship!

So shed your ignorant disbelief this moment. Enshrine supreme, unshakable, living faith in your heart this very moment. Recall to your mind the glorious examples of saints of the past. They believed, and they reaped the rich spiritual harvests. You too can enjoy great peace, happiness and prosperity here, and attain Him here and now if you have faith in idol worship.

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D. Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed. Former Principal, A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

The Hindus are a profoundly religious people. Their goal of life is Self-realisation or the attainment of God-consciousness. A religion of some kind they must have, a religion which will stir the depths of the heart and give room for the exercise of faith, devotion and love.All Hindu festivals have a deep spiritual import or high religious significance. All great Hindu festivals have religious, social and hygienic elements in them.

Festivals are an important part of our lives. It is time to be joyful and it is to best period of life when we meet our people and when we have an opportunity to be with Almighty God It is the time when we may fell festive today and have a strong desire to celebrate specific festivals with friends and family members.

Whether we have a special event to attend, or we simply want to share some good times with those we love, we might consider hosting a fun gathering at our homes or inviting loved ones to join us for an evening of local entertainment in our area These festivals make us cheerful and happy, and give him rest and peace. At the same time, we can create a celebratory atmosphere in all of our various activities today by simply sharing our joys and excitements wherever we go amongst our friends and family members. By choosing to remember that celebrations are defined by the attitudes of those involved rather than the events themselves, We can turn any event into an occasion of joy. by creating an event of joy and entertainments at the time of the festival of our choice in our busy life style.

We can learn to celebrate each moment of our lives by choosing to feel happy, lighthearted,  joyful, and reaching out to share these sentiments with our family members and friends . While celebrations are often geared toward a specific event or situation, that is not a requirement to enjoy a festive mood with friends and loved ones But. by choosing to share our excitements and joys with others in any setting, we can enjoy a celebratory atmosphere and bring a new sense of meaning and enjoyment to each day This gives us a chance to crate a new atmosphere to be happy and gay in this modern life.. We can best honor our desire to celebrate with friends and family members including our loved ones today by reaching out to share our ebullience and transforming each moment into a festive  enjoyable occasion. in this busy life.

Most of the festivals of India are based on astronomical calculations by archaeologists of India’ According to the Surry Siddhanta, a Hindu astronomical texts the celestial traditions of India date back to the year 21,63,102 B.C.E.While few modern Archaeologists or Historians accept this figure as having anything other than mythological significance,

Hindus hold festivals to honor each of the hundreds of Hindu Gods and Goddesses. Most of these festivals are local celebrations at the temples and honor specific divinities There are some festivals like Holi, Diwali, Krishna Jayanti, Ramanavami, which are, celebrate widely throughout India and other parts of the world. In the past all feasts and festivals were religious. Today many of them celebrate nonreligious events that will be covered by me in this book in detail. India being a secular State, the festivals of other faiths are also observed by the States and people. The people consider even Independents Day and birthdays of prominent people like Sri Mahatma Gandhi and other prominent leader’s birthdays as festival for celebration. They also celebrate the birthdays of their religious saints and Swamis who gave an excellent heritage of spiritual knowledge to them.

There is great connection between Vratas, Sankaras, temple festivals and rituals observed by Hindu faith .The same principle applied to the formalities of other faiths. In this connection Mrs. Tara Bapat has stated that” Every religion has its rituals and through them, the main teachings of the religion are taught to  children. In Hindu Religion, there is colorful festival all the year round. Different deities like Vishnu, Shiva, Ganesh and Durga are worshipped with great devotion and also with great joy and enthusiasm  In joint families, these occasions were performed with great joy and enthusiasm  and thus they strengthened the ties of the family.

To know about the festivals of India, we have to have knowledge of all deities under Hindu faiths, details about important temples in India, the life sketches of important incarnations of Gods, great philosophers, leaders of India, the significance of great rivers and mountains and the various religious rituals along with the celebrations of fairs and way of its preparation of feasts, shops, entertainments and other shows and rides at this time. Mostly there cannot be any festival celebrations without the music.

Here are some important festivals of Hindus in India:

CHITRA PURNIMA

The twelve  months of the Hindu year, based on the lunar calendar, are named after that star during whose ascendency the full moon of that month occurs. The full moon day of Chaitra month, that is, the Purnima during the ascendency of the Chitra star is particularly sacred to the Chitra Guptas, the recording angels of the Hindu pantheon. A special worship is offered to these celestial representatives of the god of death, and an offering of spiced rice is prepared and later distributed as prasad or holy sacrament.

DEEPAWALI

Deepawali or Diwali means “a row of lights”. It falls on the last two days of the dark half of Kartik (October-November). For some it is a three-day festival. It commences with the Dhan-Teras, on the 13th day of the dark half of Kartik, followed the next day by the Narak Chaudas, the 14th day, and by Deepavali proper on the 15th day.

There are various alleged origins attributed to this festival. Some hold that they celebrate the marriage of Lakshmi with Lord Vishnu. In Bengal the festival is dedicated to the worship of Kali. It also commemorates that blessed day on which the triumphant Lord Rama returned to Ayodhya afterdefeating Ravana. On this day also Sri Krishna killed the demon Narakasura.

In South India people take an oil bath in the morning and wear new clothes. They partake of sweetmeats. On this day Hindu merchants in North India open their new account books and pray for success and prosperity during the coming year. The homes are cleaned and decorated by day and illuminated by night with earthern oil-lamps.

DURGA PUJA OR NAVARATRI

.This festival is observed twice a year, once in the month of Chaitra and then in Aswayuja. It lasts for nine days in honour of the nine manifestations of Durga. During Navaratri (the word literally means “nine nights”) devotees of Durga observe a fast.

The beginning of summer and the beginning of winter are two very important junctions of climatic and solar influence. These two periods are taken as sacred opportunities for the worship ofthe Divine Mother. They are indicated respectively by the Rama-Navaratri in Chaitra (April-May)and the Durga Navaratri in Aswayuja (September-October.Durga represents the Divine Mother. She sits on a lion.

The Durga Puja is celebrated in various parts of India in different styles. But the one basic aim of this celebration is to propitiate Shakti, the Goddess in Her aspect as Power,

Durga Puja or Navaratri commences on the first and ends on the tenth day of the bright half of Aswayuja (September-October). It is held in commemoration of the victory of Durga over Mahishasura, the buffalo-headed demon. In Bengal Her image is worshipped for nine days and then cast into water. Devi fought with Bhandasura for nine nights (the demons have extraordinary strength during the night),and killed him on the evening of the tenth day.

Vijaya Dasami.

The DivineMother fought with him for nine nights (the demons have extraordinary strength during the night),and killed him on the evening of the tenth day, known as the Vijaya Dasami.  It was on this day that Arjuna worshipped Devi, before starting the battle against the Kauravas on the field of Kurukshetra.

In days of yore, kings used to undertake ambitious expeditions on the day of the Vijaya Dasami. Those kings who did not go on such expeditions used to go out hunting in the deep forests.

In Rajputana, India, even up to this date, people arrange mock attacks on some fort on Vijaya Dasami.

Dussera can also be interpreted as “Dasa-Hara”, which means the cutting of the ten heads ofRavana. So, let us resolve today to cut the ten heads—passion, pride, anger, greed, infatuation, lust, hatred, jealousy, selfishness and crookedness—of the demon, Ego, and thus justify the celebration of Dussera.

GAYATRI JAPA DAY

TheGayatri Japa Day is one such very holy and glorious day intended to remind all of the greatest and most glorious of all Mantras, the sacred Gayatri Mantra.

The Gayatri is the greatest of all Mantras as its presiding Deity is none other than Para Brahman Himself. Hence. The Gayatri itself is the crest-jewel or the king of all Mantras.

GURU PURNIMA

The full moon day in the month of Ashad (July-August) is an extremely auspicious and holy day of Guru Purnima. On this day, sacred to the memory of the great sage, Bhagavan Sri Vyasa, Sannyasins settle at some place to study and discourse on the thrice-blessedBrahma Sutras composed by Maharishi Vyasa, and engage themselves in Vedantic, philosophical investigation.

Sri Vyasa has done unforgettable service to humanity for all times by editing the fourVedas, writing the eighteenPuranas, the Mahabharata and the Srimad Bhagavata

HOLI

In days of yore, there were communities of cannibals in India. They caused much havoc.They threatened the lives of many innocent people. One of them was Holika or Putana. She took immense delight in devouring children. Sri Krishna destroyed her and thus saved the little children. Even today, the effigy or figure of Holika is burnt in the fire.

It begins about ten days before the full moon of the month Phalgun (February-March), but is usually only observed for the last three or four days, terminating with the full moon.

Holi is known by the name of Kamadahana in South India, the day on which Cupid was burnt by Lord Siva.Another legend has it that once upon a time an old woman’s grandchild was to be sacrificed.to a female demon named Holika

Connected to this legend of the demon Holika is Bhakta Prahlad’s devotion to Lord Narayana . Prahlad’s father,Hiranyakashipu, punished him in a variety of ways to change his devotional mind and make him worldly-minded. He ordered his sister, Holika, who had a boon toremain unburnt even in fire, to take Prahlad on her lap and enter into the blazing flames. Holika did so. She vanished, but Prahlad remained untouched and laughing. He was not affected by the fire on account of the Grace of Lord Narayana.

In North India, people play joyfully with coloured water.Huge bundles of wood are gathered and burnt at night, and everywhere one hears shouts of“Holi-ho! Holi-ho!” People stand in the streets and sprinkle coloured water on any man who passes by, be he a rich man or an officer. There is no restriction on this day

The religious element in the Holi festival consists of worship of Krishna. In some places it is also called the Dol Yatra. The word dol literally means “a swing”. An image of Sri Krishna as ababe is placed in a little swing-cradle and decorated with flowers and painted with coloured powders. The pure, innocent frolics of little Krishna with the merry milkmaids (Gopis) of

Brindavan are commemorated. Devotees chant the Name of Krishna and sing Holi-songs relating to the frolics of little Krishna with the Gopis.

MAKARA SHANKRANTI

The Sanskrit term “Shankramana” means “to begin to move”. The day on which the sun begins to move northwards is called Makara Shankranti. It usually falls in the middle of January.

Among the Tamilians in South India this festival is called the Pongal.

To many people, especially the Tamilians, Makara Shankranti ushers in the New Year.As already mentioned, this is the Pongal festival in South India.

It is closely connected with agriculture. To the agriculturalist, it is a day of triumph. He would have by then brought home thefruits of his patient toil. Symbolically, the first harvest is offered to the Almighty.

RAKSHA BANDHAN

Raksha Bandhan is called Avani Avittam in South India. This falls on the full moon day of the month of Sravan (August-September). It is an important Hindu festival. Hindus wear a new holy thread and offer libations of water to the ancient Rishis on this day.

Recitation of theVedas on this great day is highly beneficial. This festival is also known as Upakarmam, and is specially sacred to the Brahmins, who have been invested with the sacred thread. When the Brahmin boy is invested with this holy thread, symbolically his third eye, or the eye of wisdom, is opened. This festival of Upakarmam reminds the wearer of the sacred thread of its glorious spiritual significance

In North India, on this day, an amulet known as a Raksha or Rakhi, is tied round the wrist of brothers by the sisters as a protection from evil during the coming year. Brahmins and Purohits similarly tie amulets round the wrists of their patrons and receive gifts

RATHA SAPTAMI

This falls on the 7th day of the bright fortnight of the month of Margaseersha (December-January). People worship the sun in the early morning and recite the Surya Sahasranama. Good actions done on this day give manifold results. Brahmins become celestials ifthey fast on this day and worship God; Kshatriyas, that is, people of the warrior caste, become Brahmins; Vaishyas, the merchants, become Kshatriyas: and Sudras or men of the servant caste, become Vaishyas. If women fast on this day, they attain knowledge and derive virtues. If widowsfast on this day, they get rid of widowhood from the next birth onwards. Even the sin of slaying aBrahmin is expiated by the power of fasting on this day. He who takes a bath at the time of sunrise is purified like Mother Ganges. He can never become a poor man.

TELUGU NEW YEAR’S DAY

This falls on the first day of the month of Chaitra (March-April) according to Chandramana. This is a day of rejoicing. This is new year’s day for the people of Andhra Pradesh and also the Telugu people all over the world.

Those who live north of the Vindhya hills observe Barhaspatyamana. Those living south of the Vindhya hills observe Sauramana or Chandramana.

These become manifest in their distinctive calendars where the dates and months vary. Some have calculations according tothe solar system, and others according to the lunar system, with the result that despite all being Brahmins, the New Year differs among different sects. Thus there is a Telugu New Year’s Day; a

Tamil New Year’s Day, and a New Year’s Day distinct from these in the almanac of North India.

VASANTA PANCHAMI

This is an important bathing day. All Hindus observe it. It is also known as Magh Sukla Panchami as it falls in the month of Magh (January-February). This is the festival that marks the first day of spring.Vasanta means the spring season, which is very congenial for doing vigorous Yoga Sadhana.

Men, women and girls wear yellow cloth. The yellow colour is a sign of auspiciousness and spirituality. It represents the ripening of the spring crops. Even the food is coloured yellow by using saffron. All the folk get together and sing songs connected with spring. All get up in the early morning, take bath and worship the sun, Mother Ganga, the Deity of the sacred river Ganges, and the earth.

The Bengalis call this festival Saraswathi Puja. They worship the Goddess Saraswathi on this day. The image of the Goddess is taken in procession and immersed in the holy Ganges.

SRI APPAYYA JAYANTHI

Sri Appayya Dikshita was born in the Krishna Paksha of the Kanya month of Pramateecha Varsha 1544 A.D.) on the auspicious hour and day under the Uttaraproshtapada constellation. His Jayanthi is celebrated every year on 2nd October.

Sri Appayya, the greatest name in the 16th century annals of South India, is the reputed author of more than 104 books,representative of all branches of knowledge in Sanskrit literature.He attained greatness mainly by his works on Vedanta.

On this great day (2nd October) when you celebrate the birthday of Appayya Dikshita, pray and worship the Lord and your Guru. Study Appayya’s works, especially his great devotional work, Atmarpana Stuthi.

DATTATREYA JAYANTHI

Dattatreya  Jayanthi falls during December-January on the full moon day of the month of Margaseersha. His story is told as follows.Anusuya is quoted as the model of chastity. She was the wife of Atri Maharishi, a great sageand one of the seven foremost seers and sages

Once, Saraswathi, Lakshmi and Parvati requested their husbands (the Trimurtis) to test thePativrata Dharma of Anusuya, by asking her to give them alms with an unclothed body.Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva came to know of the austerity and desire of Anusuya

As soon as Atri Rishi returned home, Anusuya related all that had happened during his absence, placed the three children at his feet and worshipped him. But, Atri knew all this already through his divine vision. He embraced all the three children. They became one child, with two feet,one trunk, three heads and six hands. Atri Rishi blessed his wife and informed her that the Trimurtis themselves had assumed the forms of the three children to gratify her wish.In the meantime, Narada went to Saraswathi, Lakshmi and Parvati and informed them thattheir husbands had been turned into children through the power of the Pativrata Dharma of Anusuyaand that they would not return unless they asked for their husbands as alms from Rishi Atri. ThusSaraswathi, Lakshmi and Parvati assumed the form of ordinary women, appeared before Atri andasked for their own husbands as alms. Atri duly honoured the three ladies and, with folded palms,prayed to them that his wish and the wish of Anusuya should be fulfilled.Then, the Trimurtis appeared in their true form before Atri and said, “This child will be agreat sage according to your word and will be equal to us, according to the wish of Anusuya. Thechild will bear the name of Dattatreya.” Saying this they disappeared.Who is regarded as an Incarnation of the Trinity.

GANESH CHATURTHI

Ganesh Chaturthi is one of the most popular of Hindu festivals. This is the birthday of LordGanesha. It is the day most sacred to Lord Ganesha. It falls on the 4th day of the bright fortnight of Bhadrapada (August-September). It is observed throughout India, as well as by devoted Hindus in all parts of the world. Clay figures of the Deity are made and after being worshipped for two days, or in some cases ten days, they are thrown into water.

Lord Ganesha is the elephant-headed God. He is worshipped first in any prayers. His Names are repeated first before any auspicious work is begun, before any kind of worship is begun.

He is the Lord of power and wisdom. He is the eldest son of Lord Shiva and the elder brother of Skanda or Kartikeya.

GITA JAYANTI

The Gita Jayanti, or the birthday of theBhagavad Gita, is celebrated throughout India by all the admirers and lovers of this most sacred scripture on the eleventh day (Ekadashi) of the brighthalf of the month of Margaseersha (December-January), according to the Hindu almanac. It was on this day that Sanjaya narrated to King Dhritarashtra the dialogue between Sri Krishna and Arjuna, and thus made the glorious teachings of the Lord available to us, and to people of the world, for all time.

HANUMAN JAYANTI

Sri Hanuman is worshipped all over India—either alone or together with Sri Rama.

Every temple of Sri Rama has the murti or idol of Sri Hanuman. Hanuman is the Avatara of Lord

Shiva. He was born of the Wind-God and Anjani Devi. His other names are Pavanasuta, Marutsuta,Pavankumar, Bajrangabali and Mahavira.His birthday falls on Chaitra Shukla Purnima (the March-April full moon day).On this holy day worship Sri Hanuman. Fast on this day. Read theHanuman Chalisa. Spend the whole day in the Japa of Ram-Nam. Sri Hanuman will be highly pleased and will bless you with success in all your undertakings.

KRISHNA JANMASHTAMI

This is the birthday of Lord Krishna, the eighth Divine Incarnation. It falls on the 8th day of the dark half of the month of Bhadrapada (August-September). This is one of the greatest of all

Hindu festivals. Lord Krishna was born at midnight. A twenty-four hour fast is observed on thisday, which is broken at midnight.

The Lord appeared when the moon entered the house of Vrishabha at the constellation of thestar Rohini, on Wednesday, the 8th day of the second fortnight of the month of Sravana, which corresponds to the month of Bhadrapada Krishnapaksha according to the Barhaspatyamana, in the year of Visvavasu, 5,172 years ago (from 1945), which means 3227 B.C.

On the holy Krishna Janmashtami, the ladies in South India decorate their houses beautifully, ready to welcome the Lord. They prepare various sweetmeats and offer them to the Lord. Butter was Krishna’s favourite, and this is also offered. From the doorway to the inner meditation room of the house the floor is marked with a child’s footprints, using some flour mixed with water. This creates the feeling in them that the Lord’s own Feet have made the mark. They treat the day as one of very great rejoicing. There is recitation of the Bhagavatam, singing and praying everywhere.

SHANKARA JAYANTHI

Shankaracharya,the Founder of the School of Monistic philosophy,Who is regarded as the Avatara of Lord Shiva.It was only Shankara who gave the unshakable concrete form to Hinduism and established the unity and purity of enlightened Hindu thought and culture. Superstitions and corrupt practices melted away in no time.

The age-long six systems of theism which were suppressed by the prattlers re-emerged in their original glory only through the concerted efforts of Shankara.

SKANDA SASHTI

After burning Cupid, the Lord ascertained by His Yogic vision that the birth of Lord Subramanya was absolutely necessary to destroy the powerful Taraka. Siva’s seed was thrown into the fire which, unable to retain it, threw it into the Ganges, which in turn threw it into a reed forest.

This is where Lord Subramanya was born; hence, He is called Saravanabhava—“born in a reed-forest”. He became the leader of the celestial hosts and the destroyer of Taraka as Brahma had ordained.

There are big temples of Lord Subramanya at Tiruchendur, in Udipi, Palani Hills, in Ceylon and Tiruparankundrum. The Lord spent His childhood days in Tiruchendur and took Mahasamadhi at Kathirgamam. If anyone goes to Kathirgamam with faith, devotion and piety, and stay in the temple there for two or three days, the Lord Himself grants His vision to the devotee. The devotee is filled with rich spiritual experiences. A big festival is held in the temple every year on Skanda Sashti. Thousands of people visit the place. “Mountains” of camphor are burnt on this occasion.

Skanda Sashti falls in November. It is the day on which Lord Subramanya defeated the demon Taraka. Great festivals are held on this day with great pomp and grandeur. Devotees also do Bhajan and Kirtan on a grand scale. Thousands are fed sumptuously. Many incurable diseases are cured if one visits Palani and worships the Lord there. In South India, the Lord Subramanya’s Lilasare dramatized on the stage.

In addition to the Skanda Sashti, devotees of Lord Subramanya observe weekly and monthly days in His honour. Every Friday, or the Kartigai Nakshatram day every month, or the sixth day of the bright fortnight,—all these are sacred days for His devotees. The sixth day of the month of Tulam (October-November) is the most auspicious of them all. This is the Skanda Sashti day.

In many places the festival commences six days prior to the Sashti itself and concludes on the day of the Sashti. During these days, devotees recite various inspiring hymns and read stories connected with Lord Subramanya. They worship the Lord and takeKavadi(see below). They go on pilgrimage to the various Subramanya shrines.

THE KAVADI FESTIVAL

Perhaps the most potent propitiatory rite that a devotee of Shanmukha undertakes to perform is what is known as the Kavadi. The benefits that the devotee gains from offering a Kavadi to the Lord are a millionfold greater than the little pain that he inflicts upon himself.

Generally, people take a vow to offer the Lord a Kavadi for the sake of tiding over a great calamity. Though this might, on the face of it, appear a little mercenary, a moment’s reflection will reveal that it contains in it the seed of supreme love of God. The worldly object is achieved, no doubt, and the devotee takes the Kavadi; but after the ceremony he gets so God-intoxicated that his inner spiritual being gets awakened. This is also a method that ultimately leads to the supreme state of devotion.

Kavadi: The Kavadi has various shapes and sizes, from the simple shape of a hawker’s storehouse (a wooden stick with two baskets at each end, slung across the shoulder) to the costly palanquin structure, profusely flower-bedecked and decoratively interwoven with peacock feathers. In all cases the Kavadi has a good many brass bells adorning it and announcing it as the Kavadi-bearer draws it along. As the Kavadi-bearer very often observes silence, the bells are the only eloquent signs of a Kavadi procession. Now, the two baskets hanging at each end of the Kavadi contain rice, milk or other articles that the devotee has vowed to offer the Lord. The more devout among them, and especially those who do it as a Sadhana, collect these articles by begging. They travel on foot from village to village, and beg from door to door. The villagers offer their articles directly into the basket of the Kavadi. The Kavadi-bearer continues begging until the baskets are full or the avowed quantity is reached, and then offers the Kavadi to the Lord. Some keen devotees undertake to walk barefoot from home to one of the shrines of Lord Subramanya, bearing the Kavadi all the way and collecting materials for the offering. He has to walk a hundred miles sometimes! The people who place the articles in the baskets also receive the Lord’s blessings.

RAMNAVMI

Ramnavami or the birthday of Lord Rama falls on the 9th day of the bright fortnight of the month of Chaitra (March-April).

Rama was the Lord Hari Himself, incarnate on earth for the destruction of Ravana. He was well accomplished, beautiful and endowed with royal marks. His glory and prowess were unlimited. He was peerless on earth. He was free from malice. He was gentle. He was the protector of all His people. He always addressed them in gentle words. He never used any harsh words even when somebody provoked Him. He held sway over the whole world.

Let Sri Rama be your ideal. Ideals are remembered and adored for the purpose of adopting them in your own life. The Ramnavmi celebration or the Vasanta Navaratri every year is an opportune period for us to saturate ourselves with the spirit of Lord Rama.

Ramnavmi is one of the most important festivals of the Vaishnava sect of the Hindus.However, even those who adore Lord Shiva celebrate the occasion. Some observe a strict fast on theday. Temples are decorated and the image of Lord Rama is richly adorned. The holy Ramayana is read in the temples. At Ayodhya, the birthplace of Sri Rama, a big fair is held on this day.

In South India the Sri Ramnavmi Utsavam is celebrated for nine days with great fervor and devotion. Those talented in the art of story-telling narrate the thrilling episodes of the Ramayana.

The Kirtanists chant the holy Name of Rama and celebrate the wedding of Rama with Sita on this great day. It is an extremely colourful ceremony, highly inspiring and instructive, too.

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D. Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed. Former Principal,A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

It is inexcusable that who think in the Western frame of thought are totally ignorant of the frame of thought of the East. Year after year we channelize our thinking exclusively in the thought forms of Western culture, in practicing or examining the concepts of psychology.  In modern days we can no longer deny that all the mankind lives in One World, naturally such ignorance of eastern mind is as dangerous as it is inexcusable.

It will be quite interesting to analyse the eastern concept about the psychological character of dream-consciousness.

Buddhist Theories of Dreams

Mr. Aung gives us a lucid account of the four Buddhist theories of dreams : ” The first of these is clearly the physiological theory, which recognizes a source of dreams in the pathological conditions of the body. . . .The theory of the induction of dreams by peripheral nerve-stimulation, due either to the action of external objects on sense-organs, or to disturbances in the peripheral regions of the nerves, is but a branch of the physiological theory. The second may be called the psychological theory. It recognizes the induction of dreams by central stimulation due to the automatic activities of the mind.”  The theory of the induction of dreams by the agency of spirits may be stigmatized in the West as ” the superstitious theory”. ” But as the devas or mythical beings as they would be termed in the West, are, according to Buddhism, but different grades of sentient beings in the thirty-one stages of existence, the theory in question, merely recognizes the suggestive action of mind upon mind, and may therefore be aptly called the telepathic or telepsychic theory “- 1

The theory of the induction of prophetic dreams by the agency of merit and demerit may be called ” the clairvoyant theory “. The theory which explains dreams as the fulfilment of desires may also be called the psychological theory. The different kinds of dreams described by Indian thinkers may be explained by these four theories.

The  Naiyayikas and the Vaisesikas Theory of Dreams

The the Naiyayikas and the Vaisesikas generally recognize the perceptual character of dreams. But there are some Nyaya-Vaisesika writers who hold that dreams are representative in character ; they are recollections of past experience due to revival of subconscious impressions. We may designate this doctrine as the representative theory of dreams as contrasted with the presentative theory.

Among the Naiyayikas Bhasarvajna started the view that dream- consciousness is a kind of false recollection (smrti)2 We have already seen that Jayasimhasuri distinguishes between anubhuyamanaropa illusions and smaryamanaropa illusions. The former consist in the false ascription of a percept to another percept. The latter consist in the false ascription of an idea of memory to a percept. Jayasimhasuri includes dreams in the latter. So he regards them as representative in character. 3 Jayanta Bhatta seems to regard dream-cognitions as recollections of past experience. 4 Kesavarnisra regards all dream- cognitions as false recollections. 5 Jagadlsa holds that dream-cognitions are produced by recollections of objects perceived in the past, adrsta or merit and demerit, and intra-organic disorders. 6 Thus the ancient Naiyayikas regard dreams as presentative in character, while the majority of medieval and modern Naiyayikas, regard them as representative in character. 7

The Mimamsakas Theory of Dreams

The Mlmamsakas also recognize the representative character of dreams. Kurnarila holds that even dreams have an objective basis ; they are produced by external objects which are not present to the sense-organs but were perceived elsewhere in the past and now revived through their subconscious impressions. 8 Parthasarathirnisra says, ” It is definitely known that dream-cognitions are of the nature of recollection.” 9 He holds that external objects perceived in some other time and place are remembered owing to the revival of their impressions through the agency of adrsta (merit or demerit) ; but they appear to consciousness as objects existing here and now owing to the perversion of the mind by sleep. 10 Prabhakara also regards dream-cognitions as recollections of past experience. But he slightly modifies the doctrine of Kumarila. He advances his theory of obscuration of memory (smrtipramosa] to account for the apparently presentative character of dreams. His theory will be considered in the next section.

The Vedantic Theory of Dreams

Samkara also is an advocate of the representative theory of dreams. He says, ” Dream-consciousness is of the nature of recollection (smrtt)” 11 ” Dreams are reproductions of past waking perceptions owing to the revival of their subconscious impressions ; so they have the semblance of waking perceptions.” 12 Though Samkara advocates the representative theory of dreams, his follower, Dharmarajadvarmdra advocates the presentative theory. 13

Prabhakara’s Representative Theory of Dreams

According to Prabhakara, dream-cognitions are really reproductions of past waking experience ; but they appear to consciousness as direct and immediate sense-presentations owing to lapse of memory (smrtipramosa}. In dream-consciousness memory-images of past experience appear to consciousness as percepts. It is due to lapse of memory which makes the distinctive character of the memory- images, viz., their representative character drop out of consciousness ; and thus the memory-images of past experience deprived of their representative character appear to consciousness as percepts in dream. The process may be represented as follows :

Memory-image memory = percept  or representation memory = presentation.

Recollection is the apprehension of the previously apprehended (grhitagrahanam smrtih) ; and if the element of ” the apprehended ” sinks below the threshhold of consciousness, then recollection appears as a direct apprehension or perception, the representation appears as a direct and immediate presentation. Thus, according to Prabhakara, dream-cognitions are really representative in character, but they appear to consciousness as direct presentations owing to lapse of memory. Prabhakara explains both the waking illusions and dream- illusions by the same theory of obscuration of memory (smrti- pramosa).

The Nyaya-Vaisesika Criticism of the Prabhakara Theory

Udayana discusses the nature of dream-cognitions in Nyayaku- sumanjali and criticizes the Prabhakara theory of dreams. In the dream-state, though the external sense-organs cease to function, yet we have direct and immediate presentations of objects not present at that time and place. This dream-consciousness cannot be of the nature of memory, inasmuch as during the state of dream we do not recognize dream-cognitions as reproductions of our past experience in such a form as ” I remember this ” ; nor, on waking from sleep, do we remember our dream-cognitions in such a form as  remembered this “. But, on the contrary, during the state of dream we apprehend our dream-cognitions as actual perceptions, and not as mere echoes of our past experience ; and on waking from sleep we remember our dream-cognitions as actual perceptions in the dream- state. So dream-cognitions are not representative but perceptual in character.

But how can they be perceptual in nature, since the things that are presented to consciousness in dream are not present at that time and place, and the peripheral organs are not quite operative at that time, which are the channels of all perceptions, and the central organ too cannot apprehend external objects without the help of the peripheral organs ? Are dream-cognitions, then, illusions of memory (smrti-viparyasa] ? Do dream-cognitions appear as percepts, though, as a matter of fact, they are nothing but memory-images ? Do memory-images appear to consciousness as percepts in dream- cognitions ? Are dream-cognitions the illusions of memory  as Prabhakara holds ? If by illusions of memory he means the illusory cognitions of the objects of memory, Udayana has no objection. But if by these he means the illusory appearance of memory as perception, then it cannot be maintained that dream-cognitions are the illusions of memory. For if dream-cognitions were nothing but illusory appearances of memory-images as percepts, the perceptual character of dream-cognitions would be contradicted at some time or other and recognized as representative. But, in fact, in the dream- state we never recognize dream-cognitions as reproductions of our past experience. Besides, in the dream-state we have cognitions of many things which have never been perceived before, e.g. the lopping off of our own heads. Moreover, it is not possible for one form of consciousness to appear as another, though an object may appear to consciousness as quite a different thing. If in dream-consciousness memory-images were illusorily cognized as percepts, we would never have a direct presentative consciousness in the form ” I perceive this pot “, but we would have a presentative consciousness in the form ” I perceive that pot ” (i.e. perceived in the past and reproduced in memory). As a matter of fact, in dream-cognitions we have a direct and immediate presentation in the form ” I perceive this pot “. Thickness is the special characteristic of perception alone, while that next of memory. Hence, dream-cognitions must be admitted to be presentative or perceptual in character. 14

The SamkarIte Criticism of the Prabhakara Theory

According to the Samkarite, in an illusory perception of waking life we do not perceive an object as another, as the Nyaya-Vaiesika holds, but we perceive an illusory reality which is produced at that time and place ; this reality is illusory (pratlbhaslka] and undefinable (anlrvacamya) as distinguished from the empirical (vyavaharlka) reality which is the object of right perception. Likewise, according to him, dream-cognitions too are illusory perceptions, during sleep, of illusory realities produced at that time and place, like the illusory perceptions of our waking life.

But Prabhakara contends that dream-cognitions cannot be direct and immediate sense-presentations, because the peripheral organs cease to function during sleep and the central sensory or mind cannot apprehend external objects without the help of the peripheral organs ; and because dream-cognitions are not presentations at all, it is quite useless to assume that they apprehend illusory realities produced at that time and place. In fact, Prabhakara urges that dream- cognitions are nothing but representations of our previous waking perceptions ; and because we cannot discriminate the dream- representations from their originals in waking perceptions we mistake them for actual sense-presentations.

To this the Saniikarite replies that dream-cognitions cannot be representative in character because in dream we are conscious that ” we see a chariot “, and on waking from dream we are consciousthat ” we saw a chariot in dream “. This introspection clearly shows that dreams are perceptual in character and this fact of experience cannot be explained away by a dogmatic assumption. And., moreover, dream-cognitions cannot be mere recollections of our previous waking perceptions, for the objects of dream-cognitions (e.g. chariots, elephants, etc.) were never perceived in our waking life exactly in that place ; hence dream-cognitions must be regarded as immediate presentations or perceptions. 15

The Samkarite Criticism of the Nyaya-Vaisesika Theory

Though the Sarhkarlte agrees with the Nyaya-Vaisesika in regarding dream-cognitions as presentative in character, and in refuting Prabhakara’s doctrine of the representative character of dreams, yet he differs from the latter in the metaphysical implication of dreams. According to the Nyaya-Vaisesika, in an illusory perception we erroneously ascribe unreal silver to a nacre which is real in the illusory perception of the nacre as silver (suktirajata). But the Samkarite holds that unreal silver (pratibhasika rajata) is produced at that time and place, which is apprehended by the illusory cognition of silver. So, in dream-cognitions, too, according to him, unreal objects such as elephants, chariots, etc., are produced at that time and place and continue as long as dream-cognitions last.

The objects of dream-cognitions (e.g. chariots, elephants, etc.) cannot be erroneously ascribed to any real object (e.g. ground) present to the sense-organs, since the ground is not in contact with the peripheral organs. Nor can they be erroneously ascribed to an object such as ground reproduced in memory, since the ground is not reproduced in memory in dream but is an object of actual perception. Moreover, the objects of dream-cognitions cannot be perceived through the peripheral organs, since they do not really exist in that place, and consequently cannot come in contact with the sense-organs. Nor can these objects of dream-cognitions be brought to consciousness in dream through association (jnanalaksana- sanntkarsd) with the ideas of other objects which are not present to the sense-organs at that time. Nor can they be perceived by the mind, since it cannot apprehend external objects which are not in contact with the external organs. Nor can they be cognized byinference, since they are distinctly felt as objects of direct perception. Moreover, the objects of dream-cognitions are perceived in the absence of recollection of any mark of inference. According to the Sarhkarite, therefore, the unreal objects of dream-cognitions are produced at that time and place and continue as long as dream- cognitions last. Herein lies the difference between the Nyaya-Vaisesika and the Samkara-Vadanta in their explanation of dream-cognitions. 16

Dreams Illusions and Indefinite Perceptions Theory

Udayana distinguishes dream-cognitions from illusory perceptions of waking life and doubtful and indefinite perceptions. Though dream-cognitions are illusory perceptions, since they apprehend objects which are not present at that time and place, and as such resemble illusory perceptions of waking life, they differ from the latter in that they are produced when the peripheral organs are not quite operative, while the latter are produced by the peripheral organs. Then, again, dream-cognitions are not to be identified with doubtful and indefinite perceptions. For dream-cognitions are definite and determinate in character, in which the mind does not oscillate between alternate possibilities, while doubtful and indefinite perceptions are uncertain, because in them the mind is not fixed on a definite object but wavers between two objects without any definite decision. 17 Bhatta Vadlndra also describes a dream-cognition as an illusory, definite perception (niyatakotlka) which does not waver between alternate possibilities and which is produced when all the peripheral organs cease to operate. 18

Srldhara also holds that dream-cognitions are definite and determinate perceptions as distinguished from indefinite and indeter- minate perceptions. And also he clearly shows that dream-cognitions,arising either from the intensity of subconscious traces, or from intra-organic disorders, or from unseen agencies, are purely illusory, since they consist in the false imposition of an external form upon something that is wholly internal, and as such are not essentially different from the illusions of our waking life, the only difference lying in the fact that the former are illusory perceptions in the condition of sleep, while the latter are illusory perceptions in the waking condition. 19

Jayasimhasuri also holds that dreams are illusions in the condition of sleep. Dreams are illusions because in them things which were perceived in the past and in some other place are perceived here and now. 20 Thus, in the language of James Sully, ” Dreams are clearly illusory, and, unlike the illusions of waking life, are complete and persistent.” 21

References

1 Compendium of Philosophy, pp. 48-9.

2 princess of Wales Sarswatibhavan Studies, Benares, vol. iii, p.82n,

3  Nyayatltparyadipika of Jayasimhasuri (B.I., 1910).  p. 67.

4  Nyayabindu of Dharmakirti (Benares, 1924, pp. 182-3, 545-

5  Tarkabnisa of Kesava Misra. (Rulkni’s-, edition, Poona p. 30.

6  Tarkamrta of Jagadisa (Jivananda’s edition, Calcutta,. 1921)., p.ii,

7  Allahabad University Studies, vol. v, p. 278.

8 , Nyayavartika of Udyotkara (B.L, 1887-1904).  p, 242.

9 Nyayaratnakara on V., p. 243.

10  Ssstradipika of Parthasarathi Misra (Benares, Samvat, 1964).  pp. 2ii-i2.

11  Samkara’s Bhasya on Brahma Sutra.., ii, 2, 29.

12  Samkara’s Bhasya on Brahma Sutra.  iii, 2, 6. Cf. Sully : ” Dreams are to a large extent the semblance of external perceptions,” Illusions, pp. 130-1.

13  Vivaranaprameyasarngralia of Madhavacarya Vidyaranya (V.S.S,, Benares, 1893 pp. 159 ff.

14 Nyayakusumanjali, ch. v, pp. 1467.

15  Vivaranaprameyasarngralia of Madhavacarya Vidyaranya (V.S.S,, Benares, 1893 and SikhSraani, pp. 159-161.

16  Vivaranaprameyasarngralia of Madhavacarya Vidyaranya (V.S.S,, Benares, 1893. with fikhSmani and Maniprabha”, p. 162.

17  Kiranavall of Udayana (Benares, 1885 and 1887).  p. 271.

18 Rasassra, pp, 101-2.

19  English translation.  of Nyayakandali of Srldhara (V.S.S., Benares, 1895). , p. 388.

20  Sully : ” There is sometimes an undertone of critical reflection,which is sufficient to produce a feeling of uncertainty and bewilderment,and in very rare cases to amount to a vague consciousness that the mentalexperience is a dream.” Illusions, p. 137 n.

21  Nyayakandali of Srldhara (V.S.S., Benares, 1895).  pp. 185-6 ; Upaskara, ix, 2, 8.

.Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D. Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed. Former Principal. A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

Our present knowledge of the nervous system fits in so accurately with the internal description of the human body given in the Vedas (5000 years ago). Then the question arises whether the Vedas are really religious books or books on anatomy of the nervous system and medicine. ~~~ Rele (Jewish writer)

“Modern India will find her identity and the modern Indian will regain his soul when our people begin to have some understanding of our priceless heritage. A nation which has had a great past can look forward with confidence to a great future.

The ancient thinkers of India were not only scientists and mathematicians, but also deeply religious, esteemed saints of their time. While it may surprise some to think of religious sages as mundane scientists, , Atreya showed a correlation between mind, body, spirit and ethics. He outlined a charter of ethics centuries before the modern Hippocratic Oath.  Atrey was quick to emphasize, proper nutrition according to dosha, and considerd mind/body/soul relationship as most inevitable. He considered that the best medicine for all is spiritual and ethical life.The Indian view is that religion (universal) and science are but two sides of the same coin. The records of Hindu medicine begin with the Atharva Veda.   In this oldest system of Hindu medicine illness is attributed to disorder in one of the four humors (air, water, phlegm and blood.

The Treatment in the Samkhya Darshan

Isvarakrsna mentions eleven kinds of anaesthesia of the sense- organs (indriya-badha) corresponding to the eleven kinds of sense- organs five sensory organs, five motor organs, and one central sensory as distinguished from the peripheral organs. And besides these eleven kinds of sense-disorders and their effects on the intellect, he mentions seventeen other kinds of the disorders of the intellect (luddhtladha), 1 Mathara says that indriyabadha means the incapacity of the sense-organs for apprehending their objects ; the sense-disorders cannot produce right apprehension. 2

Vacaspati misra explains the disorders of the five sense-organs as deafness (badhirya] or anaesthesia of the auditory organ, cutaneous insensibility (kusthita) or anaesthesia of the tactual organ, blindness (andhatva) or anaesthesia of the visual organ, numbness of the tongue and loss of the sense of taste (jadataj or anaesthesia of the gustatory organ, and insensibility to smell (ajighrata) or anaesthesia of the olfactory organ. He describes the abnormalities of the motor organs as dumbness (mukata) or paralysis of the vocal organ, paralysis of the hands or prehensory organ (kaunya\ paralysis of the legs or the locomotive organ (pangutva), paralysis of the excretive organ (udavarta)) and impotence or paralysis of the generative organ (klatbya). And he explains the anaesthesia of the mind as utter insensibility to pleasure, pain and the like (mandata}. Gaudapadaregards insanity (unmada) as the anaesthesia of the mind. 3

Corresponding to these eleven kinds of sense-disorders there are eleven kinds of intellectual disorders (buddhibadhd) which consist in the non-production of psychoses corresponding to peripheral and central stimulations, or in the production of psychoses which are not in keeping with peripheral and central stimulations. And besides these eleven kinds of disorders of the intellect corresponding to the eleven kinds of sense-disorders, there are seventeen kinds of abnormalities which are purely intellectual due to some defects of the intellect, and do not owe their origin to the stimulations of the peripheral organs or the central sensory affected by pathological disorders. These intellectual disorders consist in the production of such psychoses as are contradictory to the nine kinds of tusti or intellectual complacence and eight kinds of siddhi or fruition of the peripheral organs or the central sensory affected by pathological disorders. These intellectual disorders consist in the production of such psychoses as are contradictory to the nine kinds of tusti or intellectual complacence and eight kinds of siddhi or fruition of intellectual operations. Thus altogether there are twenty-eight kinds of disorders of the intellect.

The Treatment in the Ancient Medical Literature

In the medical works of the ancient Hindus we find a description and explanation of various kinds of sense-disorders and consequent abnormalities in sense-perception. Our account of abnormal perceptions would be incomplete without a reference to this account in the medical works. First we shall give an account of the abnormalities of visual perception as described by Susruta. But his account of the disorders of visual perception cannot be fully understood unless we understand his view of the mechanism of the visual organ. So we briefly refer to the mechanism of the eye described by him.

Mechanism of the Visual Organ

The eye-ball (nayana-ludbuda] is almost round in shape and about an inch in diameter. It is made up of five elements. The muscles of the eye-ball are formed by the solid elements of earth (bhu) ; the blood in the veins and arteries of the eye-ball is formed by the element of heat (tejas) ; the black part of the eye-ball (Iris, etc.) in which the pupil is situated is formed by the gaseous element (vayu)  the white part of the eye-ball (vitreous body) is made up of the fluid element (Jala) ; and the lachrymal or other ducts or sacs (asrumarga) through which the secretions are discharged, are made up of the ethereal element (akasa].There are five mandalas^ or circles, and six patalas^ or layers, inthe eye. The five mandalas are the following, viz.

(i) the drstimandala (the pupil),

(2) the krsna-mandala (the choroid)

(3) the sveta-mandala (the sclerotic and cornea),

(4) the vartma-mandala (the eye-lid), and

(5) the paksma-mandala (the circle of the eye-lashes). 4

” The different parts of the eye-ball are held together by the blood-vessels, the muscles, the vitreous body, and the choroid. Beyond the choroid, the eye-ball is held (in the orbit) by a mass of Sleshma (viscid substance capsule of Tenon) supported by a number of vessels. The deranged Doshas which pass upward to the region of the eyes through the channels of the up-coursing veins and nervesgive rise to a good many dreadful diseases in that region.” 5

Abnormalities in Visual “Perception

According to the Hindu medical science, all diseases are due to the provocation of three humours of the body, flatulent, bilious, and phlegmatic. So the disorders of visual perception are brought about by the bodily humours (dosas) attacking the different layers of the eye.

(1) ” All external objects appear dim and hazy to the sight when the deranged Doshas of the locality passing through the veins (Sira) of the eye, get into and are incarcerated within the first Patala (inner- most coat) of the pupil (Drishti).”

(2) ” False images of gnats, flies, hairs, nets or cobwebs, rings (circular patches), flags, ear-rings appear to the sight, and the external objects seem to be enveloped in mist or haze or as if laid under a sheet of water or as viewed in rain and on cloudy days, and meteors of different colours seem to be falling constantly in all directions in the event of the deranged Doshas being similarly confined in the second Patala (coat) of the Drishti. In such cases the near appearance of an actually remote object and the contrary (Miopia and Biopia) also should be ascribed to some deficiency in the rangeof vision (error of refraction in the crystalline lens) which incapacitates the patient from looking through the eye and hence from threading a needle.”

(3) ” Objects situate high above are seen and these placed below remain unobserved when the deranged Doshas are infiltrated into the third Patala (coat) of the Drishti. The Doshas affecting the Drishti (crystalline lens), if highly enraged, impart their specific colours to the objects of vision. . . . The deranged Doshas situated at and obstructing the lower, upper, and lateral parts of the Drishti (crystalline lens) respectively shut out the view of near, distant and laterally situate objects. A dim and confused view of the external world is all that can be had when the deranged Doshas spread over and affect the whole of the Drishti (crystalline lens). A thing appears to the sight as if cut into two (bifurcated) when the deranged Doshas affect the middle part of the lens, and as triply divided and severed when the Doshas are scattered in two parts ; while a multifarious image of the same object is the result of the manifold distributions of movability of the Doshas over the Drishti.” 6

(4) When the fourth patala of the eye is attacked by the deranged humours, we have a loss of vision (timira]. When the vision is completely obstructed by the deranged humours, it is called linganasa (blindness). When linganasa is not deep-seated but superficial, we have only a faint perception of the images of the sun, the moon and the stars, the heaven, a flash of lightning, and such other highly brilliant objects. The linganasa (blindness) is also called nillka and kaca.

Timira (Loss of Vision)

There are various kinds of timira or loss of vision. In the type of timara due to the derangement of the flatulent humour (vataja) external objects appear to the sight as cloudy, moving, crooked, and red. In the type of timira due to the derangement of the bilious humour (pittaja) external objects appear to be invested with the different colours of the spectrum, of the glow-worm, of the flash oflightning, of the feathers of a peacock, or coloured with a dark blue tint. In the type of timira due to the derangement of the phlegmatic humour (kaphaja} all objects appear to the sight as covered witha thick white coat like that of a patch of white cloud, and look white, oily, and dull, and appear hazy and cloudy on a fine day, or as if laid under a sheet of water. In the type of timira due to deranged blood (raktaja) all objects appear red or enveloped in gloom, and they assume a greyish, blackish or variegated colour. In another type of timira (sannipatika)  external objects appear to the vision as doubled or trebled, variegated and confused, and abnormal images of stars and planets float about in the vision. In the type of timira due to deranged bile in concert with deranged blood, which is called parimlayi, the quarters of the heaven look yellow and appear to the sight as if brilliant with the light of the rising sun, and trees appear as if sparkling with the flashes of glow-worms

.Besides these six types of Imganasa^ there are six other kinds peculiar to the drsti (pupil), which are called pitta-vidagdha-drsti) slesma-vidagdha-drsti, dhuma-drsti, hrasva-jatya, nakulandhya and gambhirika,

(1) In pitta-vidagdha-drsti all external objects appear yellow to the sight, and nothing can be seen in the day, but things can be seen only at night. It is due to an accumulation of the deranged bile in the third patala or coat of the eye.

(2) In slesma-vidagdha-drsti all external objects appear white to the sight, and they can be seen only in the day, but not at night ; this is called nocturnal blindness. It is due to an accumulation of the deranged phlegm in all the three patalas or coats of the eye.

(3) In dhuma-drstl the external objects appear smoky. It is due to grief, high fever, excessive physical exercise, or injury to head, etc.

(4) In hrasva-jatya small objects can be seen with the greatest difficulty even in the day-time, but they can be seen easily and distinctly at night.

(5) In nakuldndhya the external objects appear multi-coloured in the day-time, and nothing can be seen at night.

(6) In gambhirika the pupil is contracted and deformed and sinks into the socket, attended with an extreme pain in the affected parts. 7

Caraka says that when the cerebrum is injured the eye-sight is affected and we have disorders in visual perception. 8 And he also says that timira or blindness is due to the excessive provocation of the flatulent humour.

Abnormalities in Auditory Perception

Susruta describes three kinds of disorders in sound-perception, viz. pranada or karna-nada, karna-ksveda  and badhirya.9 In pranada or karna-nada ringing and various other sounds are heard in the ear. In karna-ksveda only a peculiar type of sound is heard in the ear. It differs from karna-nada in that in this disease only a sound of a special kind, viz. that of a wind-pipe, is heard in the ear, while in the latter various kinds of sounds are produced in the ear. In badhirya or deafness there is a complete loss of hearing. 10

Caraka holds that badhirya or complete deafness is due to the provocation of the flatulent humour. He mentions two other kinds of disorders in auditory perception, viz. asabda-sravana and uccaihsruti which also are due to the provocation of the flatulent humour. The former is that kind of deafness in which a person can hear words uttered very softly or in whispers only. The latter is that form of deafness in which a person hears only such words as are uttered very loudly. 11

Abnormalities in Olfactory Perception

Susruta describes many disorders of the olfactory organ, of which one may be regarded as a cause of the loss of the sense of smell. In apinasa (obstruction in the nostrils) there is a chokingand burning sensation in the nostrils with a deposit of filthy slimy mucus in their passages, which deaden the sense of smell and taste for the time being. In a malignant type of pratisyaya (catarrh), too, there is an insensibility to smell. 12

Caraka also refers to ghrana-nasa which consists in the loss of the sensation of smell, and is due to the provocation of the flatulent humour. 13

Abnormalities in Gustatory Perception

Caraka mentions arasanjata as a disease of the tongue in which there is a complete loss of the sensation of taste ; it is due to the provocation of the flatulent humour. He also describes the different kinds of tastes owing to the provocation of different kinds of humours. Owing to the provocation of the flatulent humour a person has an astringent taste in the mouth, and sometimes does not feel any taste at all. Owing to the provocation of the bilious humour a person feels in his tongue the presence of an acrid or sour taste. Owing to the provocation of the phlegmatic humour a person feels in his mouth the presence of a sweet taste. And owing to the simultaneous provocation of all the three humours, a person feels the presence of many tastes in his mouth. Caraka also refers to the disease of tiktasyata or a constant bitter taste in the mouth owing to the provocation of the bilious humour. He also refers to mukhamadhurya or a constant sweet taste in the mouth, and kasayasyata or a constant astringent taste in the mouth, 14

Abnormalities in Tactual Perception

Caraka and Susruta describe cutaneous affections as kusthas which are of various kinds and which give rise to various kinds of disordered cutaneous sensations. According to Sus’ruta, when the cutaneous affection is confined only to the serous fluid of the skin, there are the following symptoms, viz. loss of the perception of touch, itching sensation, etc. ; when it is confined to the blood, it brings about complete anaesthesia ; when it affects only the flesh, there are various symptoms such as excruciating pricking pain in the affected part and its numbness ; and when it affects the fat, the body seems to be covered with a plaster. 15 In the various kinds of cutaneous affections described by Caraka and Susruta there is partial or complete anaesthesia together with various kinds of disorders in cutaneous, organic, and muscular sensations. 16

Caraka also mentions various other abnormalities in tactile sensations (including organic and muscular sensations) such as ekangaroga (partial or local paralysis), paksabadha (side paralysis),sarvangaroga (complete paralysis), dandaka (stiffness of the whole body like a log of wood), osa (the disease in which the patient feels the sensation of fire being always placed very near his body), plosa (the disease in which the patient has the sensation of his body being slightly scorched by fire), daha (a sensation of burning experienced in every part of the body), davathu (a sensation of every part of the body having been subject to painful inflammation), ant ar daha (a burning sensation within the body, generally within the thorax), amsadaha (a burning sensation in the shoulders), usmadhikya (excess of internal heat in the body), mamsadaha (a sensation of burning in the flesh), etc. 17

Disorders in the Motor Organs

Caraka refers to the abnormalities of the vocal organ such as vaksanga (temporary dumbness or difficulty in speaking, e.g. stammering) gadgadatva (slowness of speech), and mukatva (complete dumbness). When the cerebrum is injured, there are slowness of speech, loss of voice, and complete dumbness. 18 Temporary dumbness (vaksanga) and complete dumbness (mukatva) are due to the provocation of the flatulent humour. 19

Caraka says that when the cerebrum is injured there is a loss of motor effort (cestanasa) According to him, the heart is the seat of the mind, the intellect, and consciousness. But the cerebrum is the seat of sensory and motor centres. He says that just as the rays of the sun have their seat in the sun, so the sensory and motor organs and the vital currents of the sense-organs have their seat in the cerebrum. 20

Mental Blindness (Manobadha)

According to Caraka, the heart is the seat of consciousness. So when the heart is injured, we have epilepsy (apasmara) insanity (unmada\ delirium (praldpa\ and loss of the mind {cittanasa). This paralysis of the mind (cittanasa) may be called ” mental blindness ” in the language of William James. ” When mental blindness is more complete,” says James, ” neither sight, touch, nor sound avails to steer the patient, and a sort of dementia which has been called asymbolia or apraxia is the result.” 21

” According to Caraka, the prdna and the udana which are biomorphic forces, the mind (manas\ the intellect (buddhi\ and consciousness (cetand) have their seat in the heart. 22 So when the heart is overpowered by the provocation of the phlegmatic humour, consciousness is benumbed, and lapses into semi-unconsciousness (tandra)? And when the heart is overpowered by the provocation of the flatulent humour, consciousness is suspended and lapses into torpor or unconsciousness (moha).

Causes of Sense-disorders and Mental Disorders

According to Caraka, there are four kinds of correlation or contact of the sense-organs with their objects, viz. atiyoga or excess of contact, ayoga or total absence of contact, hmayoga or sparing or partial contact, and mithyayoga or contact of sense-organs with disagreeable objects, -dtiyoga corresponds to over-use of a sense-organ, ayoga to its non-use, hmayoga to its under-use, and mlthydyoga to its misuse. This account of Caraka has a strangely modern ring.

There is no doubt that sense-disorders are to a great extent due to the abnormal functioning of the sense-organs. So Caraka’s explana- tion is very significant. He accounts for the disorders of the sense- organs and consequent abnormalities of sense-perceptions by the excess of correlation, absence of correlation, partial or insufficient correlation, and injudicious correlation of the sense-organs with their respective objects. Tathayoga or judicious correlation of a sense- organ with its object preserves the normal condition of the organ, and also keeps the perceptions produced by that organ unimpaired.

But excessive exercise, absence of judicious exercise, insufficient exercise, and injudicious exercise impair the sense-organs, and con- sequently impair the perceptions produced by them. Caraka gives us some examples to illustrate the different kinds of correlation of the sense-organs with their objects. A continuous gaze at very bright objects is an example of excessive correlation of the visual organ. Total abstention from exercising the eye is absence of correlation. The sight of objects that are very minute or very distant, or that are hateful, terrible, amazing, repulsive, or extremely ugly is an example of injudicious correlation. All these impair the sense of vision.

Excessive correlation of the auditory organ arises from constantly exposing the ear to the stunning report of thunder or beat of a drum or loud cries. Total abstention from hearing by closing the ears is the absence of correlation. Injudicious correlation arises from hearing sounds that are rough, harsh, dreadful, uncongenial, disagreeable, and indicative of danger. These impair the sense of hearing.

Excessive correlation of the olfactory organ arises from constantly smelling very keen and powerful scents which call forth tears, excite nausea, produce stupefaction, etc. Total abstention from all scents is the absence of correlation. Injudicious correlation arises from smelling odours emitted by putrid objects, or objects that are poisonous, disagreeable, or repulsive. These impair the sense of smell.

Excessive correlation of the gustatory organ arises when the objects producing any of the six kinds of taste are taken in an excessive degree. Total abstention from tasting is the absence of correlation  .Injudicious correlation arises from tasting things which are made up of incompatible ingredients, or which are not suitable to the organism. These impair the sense of taste.

References

1  Samkhyakrika of Isvarakrsna Qlvananada’s edition, Calcutta,.49.

2 Matharavrtti, 49.

3  Samkhyatattvakaumudl of Vfcaspati Misra (with Vidvattosini, Bombay, Samvat, 1969).  49, and Gaudapadabhasya, 49.

4 Susrutasamkitsjuttaratantra, Ch. I. E.T. by Kunjalal Bhishagratna.

5 Susruta Samhita, Uttara-Tantra, vol. iii, English translation by Kaviraj Kunjalal Bhishagratna, p. 4.

6 Susrata Samhits, Uttara Tantra, vol. HI, English translation of Kaviraj Kunjalal Bhishagratna, chapter vii, pp. 25-6,

7 Susruta Samkita, Uttara Tantra, English translation, vol. iii,chapter vii, pp. 25-30,

8 Caraka-SarhKita”, SiddhisthSnajm, cL h, 9.

9  Ibid. ? Siatra-sthanam, chapter xx ; 12,

10 Susruta Samhita”, Uttara Tantra, ck. xx.

11 Caraka Sariihita, Sutra-sthSna, lesson xx, 12.

12 Susruta Samhita, Uttara Tantra, ch. xxii.

13 Caraka Samhjta, Sutra-sthana, lesson xx, 12.

14 Caraka SamHta, Sutra-sthana, lesson x.

15 Susruta SamhitS, Nidana-sthana, ch. v.

16 Susruta Samhita”, Nidana-sthana, ch. v, and Caraka Samhita, Sutrasthsna, ch, xx.

17 Caraka Samhita”, Sutra-sthana, lesson x.

18 Caraka Samhita, Siddhisthana, ix, 9.

19 Caraka Saihhita”, Sutra-sthSna, xx, 12.

20 Ibid., Siddhisthana, ch. ix, 5.

21 Principles of Psychology , vol. i, p. 52.

22 Caraka Samhita, Siddhisthana, ix, 4.  ix, 28.

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A. (Socio, Phil) B.Sc. M. Ed, Ph.D. Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Mrs Sudha Rani Maheshwari, M.Sc (Zoology), B.Ed. Former Principal. A.K.P.I.College, Roorkee, India

In the philosophical literature of the Hindus we find an elaborate account of the  process of dreams. The different schools of philosophers had different views as to the nature, origin, and functions of the dreams. Their views were based mostly on their systems of philosophy,though they advanced certain facts of experience in support of their views. The Hindu accounts of the dreams are widely different from those of Western physiology, because they are based more on  metaphysical speculation than on scientific observation and experiment.

Kanada defines a dream-cognition as the consciousness produced by a particular conjunction of the self with the central sensory or manas in co-operation with the subconscious impressions of past experience, like recollection. 1

Prasastapada defines a dream-cognition as an internal perception through the central sensory or mind, when all the functions of the external sense-organs have ceased and the mind has retired within a trans-organic region of the organism. 2 When the internal organ (manas} retires within itself, the peripheral organs cease to operate and consequently cannot apprehend their objects as they are no longer guided by the mind. During this retired state of the mind, when the automatic vital functions of in-breathings and out-breathings profusely go on in the organism, dream-cognitions arise through the central sensory from such causes as sleep, which is the name of a particular conjunction of the self with the mind, and subconscious impressions of past experience ; these dream-cognitions are internal perceptions of unreal objects. 3

Udayana says that in the dream-state, though the external sense- organs cease to operate, we distinctly feel that we see objects with our very eyes, hear sounds with our very ears, and so on. Udayana distinguishes dream-cognitions from illusory perceptions of waking life and doubtful and indefinite perceptions. Though dream-cognitions are illusory perceptions, since they apprehend objects which are not present at that time and place, and as such resemble illusory perceptions of waking life, they differ from the latter in that they are produced when the peripheral organs are not quite operative, while the latter are produced by the peripheral organs. Then, again, dream-cognitions are not to be identified with doubtful and indefinite perceptions. For dream-cognitions are definite and determinate

in character, in which the mind does not oscillate between alternate possibilities, while doubtful and indefinite perceptions are uncertain, because in them the mind is not fixed on a definite object but wavers between two objects without any definite decision. 4

Samkara Misra also holds that though a dream-cognition is produced by the mind when it has retired, and the external sense-organs have ceased to operate, it is apprehended as if it were produced by the external sense-organs (indrtyadvareneva) . 5

Sridhara also regards cognitions as presentative in character. He says that dream-cognitions are independent of previous cognitions, and as such are not mere reproductions of past experience ; they are produced through the retired central sensory or mind when the functions of all the peripheral organs have ceased ; they are direct and immediate presentations of a definite and determinate character. 6 These dream-cognitions arising from sleep and subconscious impressions are direct and immediate presentations (aparoksasanw edema) of objects which have no real existence at that time and place. 7 Thus Sndhara clearly points out that dream-cognitions are presentative in character ; they are not mere reproductions of past experience. But dream-perceptions are not produced by the external organs which cease to function at that time, but they are produced entirely by the mind (manomatraprabhavam). And these dream-perceptions are not indefinite and indeterminate in nature  but they are definite and determinate in character (pariccheda-svabhava}. And these dream-perceptions are not valid but illusory, since they do not represent real objects present to the sense-organs ” here and now “. Srldhara also holds that dream-cognitions are definite and determinate perceptions as distinguished from indefinite and indeterminate perceptions. And also he clearly shows that dream-cognitions,arising either from the intensity of subconscious traces, or from intra-organic disorders, or from unseen agencies, are purely illusory, since they consist in the false imposition of an external form upon something that is wholly internal, and as such are not essentially different from the illusions of our waking life, the only difference lying in the fact that the former are illusory perceptions in the condition of sleep, while the latter are illusory perceptions in the waking condition.

Sivaditya defines a dream as a cognition produced by the central sensory perverted by sleep. 8 Madhava Sarasvatl points out the following distinctive marks of dream-cognitions as defined by Sivaditya. Firstly, they are produced by the central sensory or mind, and as such are different from the waking perceptions of jars and the like, which are produced by the external sense-organs. Secondly, they are produced by the perverted mind, and as such are different from the waking perceptions of pleasure and the like, which are produced by the unperverted mind. Thirdly, they are produced by the mind perverted by sleep, and as such are different from waking hallucinations which are produced by the perverted mind in the waking condition. 9 Hallucinations are pure creations of the mind. And some dreams also are pure creations of the mind (manomatraprabhava}. Both are centrally initiated presentations. Both are definite and determinate in character. And both are unreal. So there is a great resemblance between dreams and hallucinations. The only difference between them lies in the fact that the former are hallucinations in sleep, while the latter are hallucinations in the waking condition.This distinction has been pointed out by Madhava Sarasvatl.

Prahistapada, Sndhara, Samkara Misra, Sivaditya and others recognize the central origin of dreams. Though they hold that certain dreams are produced by organic disorders within the body, they do not recognize the origin of dreams from the external sense- organs. But Udayana admits that in the dream-state the peripheral organs (at least the tactual organ which pervades the organism) do not altogether cease to operate ; external stimuli, if not sufficiently intense to awaken the person, may act upon the peripheral organs and produce dream-cognitions. 10 Thus Udayana recognizes both peripherally excited and centrally excited dreams, or in the language of Sully, dream-illusions and dream-hallucinations. Udayana also holds that though drearn-cognitions are generally perceptual in character being produced by the central sensory or mind, sometimes, though very rarely, they assume the form of inference, when, for instance, a person dreams that he sees smoke in a particular place and from the sight of the smoke infers that there must be fire behind it, 11 Thus the Vaisesikas generally advocate the presentative nature of dreams.

The ancient Naiyayikas also consider dreams as presentative in character. Gautama does not include dream-cognition in recollection. Vatsyayana regards dream as distinct from recollection. Udyotkara and Vacaspati also agree with Gautama and Vatsyayana. 12

Thus the Naiyayikas and the Vaisesikas generally recognize the perceptual character of dreams. But there are some Nyaya-Vaisesika writers who hold that dreams are representative in character ; they are recollections of past experience due to revival of subconscious  impressions.

Jayasimhasuri holds that dreams are illusions in the condition of sleep. Dreams are illusions because in them things which were perceived in the past and in some other place are perceived here and now. 13 Thus, in the language of James Sully, ” Dreams are clearly illusory, and, unlike the illusions of waking life, are complete and persistent.” 14

Frank Padmore says : ” A dream is a hallucination in sleep, and a hallucination is only a waking dream  though it is probable that the waking impression, seeing that it can contend on equal terms with the impressions derived from external objects, is more vivid than the common run of dream.” 15 Wundt also regards dreams as hallucinations. They are as vivid as sensory experience and are projected into the external world as are sensations.

Classification of Dreams

(i) Caraka’s Classification

We find a crude classification of dreams in Caraka-samhita. Caraka says that a person sees various dreams through the mind which is the guide of the external sense-organs when he is not in profound sleep. Some of these dreams are significant ; others are not. These dreams are of seven kinds, viz. dreams of those objects which have been seen, heard, and felt, dreams of those objects which are desired, dreams awakened by imagination, dreams that are premonitions of future events, and pathological or morbid dreams. 16

Caraka seems to suggest here the following psychological facts. Some dreams are mere reproductions of past experience (anulhuta) though they are apprehended as immediate perceptions. Some dreams involve constructive imagination (kalpita) though the material is supplied by memory. Some dreams are fulfilment of desires (prarthlta}. Some dreams are stimulated by pathological disorders within the organism (dosaja). And some dreams are prophetic in character (bhavtka) ; they foreshadow future events. This fact is called dream-coincidence in modern western psychology. According to Caraka, dreams are experienced only in light sleep ; they are produced by the central sensory or mind. 17

(ii) The Yatiestka Classification

Prasastapada, Srldhara, Udayana, Samkara Misra and others describe four kinds of dreams :

(i) dreams due to mtra-organic pathological disorders (dhatudosa)

(2) dreams due to the intensity of subconscious impressions (samskarapatava] ;

(3) dreams due to the unseen agency (adrsta) i.e. merit and demerit (dharmadharma) ; and

(4) ” dream-end cognitions ” or dreams-within-dreams (svapnantika jnana)

(iii) The Buddhist Classification

Mr. S. Z. Aung says that Ariyavansa-Adiccaransi attempted a systematic explanation of dream-phenomena from the Buddhist standpoint nearly a century ago in Burma. He recognized four kinds of dreams :

(1)   dreams due to organic and muscular disturbances, e.g. the flatulent, phlegmatic, and bilious humours ; The first category includes the dreams of a fall over a precipice, flying into the sky, etc., and what is called ” nightmare ” ;

(2)   recurrent dreams consisting in recurrence of the previous dreams, due to previous experiences The second consists of the ” echoes of past waking experiences ” ;

(3)   telepathic dreams due to sugges- tions from spiritualistic agents The third may include dream coincidences ;

(4) prophetic dreams due to the force of character of clairvoyant dreamers.The fourth is of a clairvoyant character.” 18

Thus the Buddhists add to the Vaisesika list dreams due to spirit- influence, or telepathic dreams. In addition to these various kinds of dreams, Caraka recognizes dreams which are wish-fulfilments.

Madhusudana and Samkara also recognize the influence of desireson dreams.

Kinds of Dreams

We have seen that according to most Indian thinkers, dream  cognitions are presentative in character. They are felt as perceptions and are aroused by external and internal stimuli. They are sometimes produced by extra-organic stimuli, and sometimes by intra- organic stimuli in the shape of peripheral disturbances and other organic disorders. These dreams may be called dream-illusions. And there are some dream-cognitions which are produced by the strength of subconscious impressions of a recent experience coloured by an intense emotion. These dreams are centrally excited and hence may be called dream-hallucinations. Among the Western psychologists, Spitta, first of all, drew a distinction between these two kinds of dreams, and called the former Nervenreiztraume  and the latter psychische Traume.

Sully calls the former dream-illusions and the latter dream-hallucinations.” And besides these two kinds of dreams, the Indian thinkers recognize prophetic or veridical dreams and telepathic dreams. The former are due to the merit and demerit of the dreamer, forecasting the future and so on ; and the latter are due to the suggestive force of spiritualistic agents. In addition to these, there are dreams-wi thin-dreams or ” dream-end ” cognitions.19

(i) Dreams Due to Peripheral Stimulation (Dream-Illusions)

Dream-illusions are those dreams which are excited by peripheral stimulation either internal or external. Udayana has discussed the question of the extra-organic and intra-organic origin of dreams. How can dream-cognitions arise in sleep ? What is the origin of dreams Dream-illusions are produced by the reproduction of those objects, the subconscious traces of which are resuscitated owing to certain causes. But how can the subconscious traces be revived without the suggestive force of similar experience ? What is the suggestive force here that revives the subconscious traces of past experience ? Udayana says that in dream-cognitions peripheral stimulation is not altogether absent. Dreams are not altogether without external stimuli  they are excited by certain external stimuli in the environment, and certain intra-organic stimuli. In the state of dream we do not altogether cease to perceive external objects, since the external sense-organs are not entirely inoperative. For instance, we perceive external sounds in dream, when they are not sufficiently loud to rouse us from sleep  and the faint external sounds perceived through the ears even during light sleep easily incorporate themselves into dreams. Even if all other external sense-organs cease to function in dream, at least the organ of touch is not inoperative, as the mind or central sensory does not lose its connection with the tactual organ even in dream, which is not confined to the external skin but pervades the whole organism according to the Nyaya-Vaisesika. This is the peculiar doctrine of the Nyaya-Vaisesika. In dream we can perceive at least the heat of our organism which serves to revive the subconscious traces of past experience. Hence certain extra-organic or intra-organic stimuli serve as the exciting cause of the revival of subconscious traces in dream. 20

Thus Udayana does not recognize the purely hallucinatory character of dreams. According to him, all dreams are of the nature of illusions because they are initiated by extra-organic or intra-organic stimuli. Thus he anticipates the more recent account of dreams in Western psychology.

” Dream-appearances,” says Mr. A. E. Taylor, ” which Volkmann classes as hallucinations are more accurately regarded by Wundt as generally, if not always, based on illusion > i.e. they are misinterpretations of actual minimal sense-Impressions such as those due to slight noises, to the positions of the sleeper’s limbs, to trifling pains, slight difficulties in breathing, palpitations, and the like.” 21 Sully says, ” Dreams are commonly classified with hallucinations, and this rightly, since, as their common appellation of c vision ‘ suggests, they are for the most part the semblance of percepts in the absence of external impressions. At the same time, recent research goes to show that in many dreams something answering to the  external impression ‘ in waking perception is starting point “. 22

Bergson says, ” When we are sleeping naturally, it is not necessary to believe, as has often been supposed, that our senses are closed to external sensations. Our senses continue to be active.”  Our senses continue to act during sleep they provide us with the outline, or at least the point of departure, of most of our dreams.” 23

Prasastapada also describes the intra-organic stimulation of dream- illusions, which has been explained and illustrated by Udayana, ridhara, Samkara Misra Jayanarayana   and others. There are some dreams which are due to intra-organic disturbances such as the disorders of the flatulent, bilious, and phlegmatic humours of the organism, which are supposed by the Hindu medical science to be the causes of all organic diseases (dhatudosa)?

Those who suffer from disorder of flatulency dream that they are flying in the sky,wandering about on the earth, fleeing with fear from tigers, etc. These are kinesthetic dreams of levitation. 24 And those who are of a bilious temperament or suffer from an inordinate secretion of bile dream that they are entering into fire, embracing flames of fire, seeing golden mountains, flashes of lightning, meteor- falls, a huge conflagration, the scorching rays of the mid-day sun, etc. And those who are of a phlegmatic temperament or suffer from phlegmatic disorders dream that they are crossing the sea, bathing in rivers, being sprinkled with showers of rain, and seeing mountains of silver and the like. 25

Dream- Hallucination

There are many dreams which are not excited by peripheral nerve-stimulation but by the intensity of the subconscious impressions left by a recent experience (samskarapatava).^ On the physical side, these dreams are due to central stimulation, and hence may be called dream-hallucinations. These dreams are generally excited by intense passions. For instance, when a man infatuated with love for a woman or highly enraged at his enemy, constantly thinks of his beloved or enemy, and while thus thinking falls asleep, then the series of thoughts produces a series of memory-images, which are manifested in consciousness as immediate sense-presentations owing to the strength of subconscious impressions. 26These dreams are purely hallucinatory in character.

We find a similar Buddhist account of dreams in Mr. Aung’s Introduction to the Compendium of Philosophy in which he has summarized Ariyavansa-Adiccaransi’s explanation of dreams. “When scenes are reproduced automatically in a dream with our eyes closed, the obvious inference is that we see them by way of the door of the mind. Even in the case of peripheral stimulations, as when a light, brought near a sleeping man’s eye, is mistaken for a bonfire,, it is this exaggerated light that is perceived in a dream by the mind-door. … If these presentations do not come from without, they must come from within, from the  inner ‘ activities of mind. That is to say, if peripheral stimulations are absent, we must look to the automatic activity of mind itself for the source of these presentations ;or, to speak in terms of physiology, we must look to the central activity of the cerebrum, which is now generally admitted to be the physical counterpart of the mind-door, the sensory nerves being the physical counterpart of the five-doors in an  organized sentient existence ‘ (pancavokara- bhava] . ‘ ‘

But Udayana surmizes that even these centrally excited dreams due to the revival of subconscious traces are suggested by extra- organic or intra-organic stimuli. 27

II.  Dreams as the fulfilment of Desires (Dream- hallucinations)

Caraka says that some dreams are about those objects which are desired (prarthita}. 28 * Madhusudana defines dream as the perception of objects due to the desires (vasana] in the mind (antahkarana] when the external sense-organs are inoperative. 29 Sarhkara also recognizes the influence of desires (vasana’) on dreams. 30 Dr. M. N. Sircar truly observes :  Here the word * desire ‘ is significant, it introduces a volitional element in dream. It seems to hold that desires get freedom, in a state of passivity and acquire strength, finally appearing in the form of dream construction.” 31 This reminds us of the Freudian theory according to which, dreams arise out of the unfulfilled desires of the unconscious. These dreams also should be regarded as dream-hallucinations, because they are not excited by peripheral stimulation 5 they are centrally initiated presentations or hallucinations.

Prophetic or Veridical Dreams

But all dreams cannot be explained by peripheral stimulation, due to the action either of external stimuli or internal stimuli, and by central stimulation. There are certain dreams which are prophetic in character ; they are either auspicious or inauspicious. Auspiciousdreams betoken good and inauspicious dreams forebode evil. The former are due to a certain merit (dharma) of the person, and the latter, to a certain demerit (adharma). Some of these prophetic dreams are echoes of our past waking experiences, while others apprehend entirely novel objects never perceived before. The former are brought about by the subconscious traces of our past experience, in co-operation with merit or demerit, according as they augur good or evil, while the latter, by merit or demerit alone, since there are no subconscious traces of such absolutely unknown objects. But merit and dement are supernatural agents ; so this explanation of prophetic dreams seems to be unscientific. But we may interpret the agency of merit and demerit as ” the force of character of clairvoyant dreamers ” after Mr. Aung.

Prasastapada and his followers recognized only three causes of dreams :

(i) intensity of subconscious impressions,

(2) intra- organic disorders, and

(3) adrsta or merit and demerit of the dreamer.

(samskarapatavat dhatudosat adrstacca.) 32

Telepathic Dreams

And besides the peripherally excited dreams, centrally excited dreams, and prophetic dreams, Ariyavansa-Adiccaransf, a Buddhist writer, has recognized another class of dreams which are due to spirit-influence, or ” due to suggestions from spiritualistic agents “in the language of Mr. Aung ; these may include ” dream- coincidences “. They may be called telepathic dreams. 33

Dreams-within-dreams

Besides these dream-cognitions which we do not recognize as dreams during the dream-state, sometimes we have another kind of dream-cognitions which are recognized as dreams. Sometimes in the dream-state we dream that we have been dreaming of something | this dream-within-dream is called svapnantlka-jnana which has been rendered by Dr. Ganganatha Jha as a ” dream-end cognition ” 34 ; in this ” dream-end cognition ” a dream is the object of another dream.35 Such a ” dream-end cognition ” arises in the mind of a person whose sense-organs have ceased their operations  so it is apt to be confounded with a mere dream- cognition. But Prasastapada, Sridhara and Samkara Mis’ra rightly point out that our ” dream-end cognitions ” essentially differ from mere dream-cognitions, since the former are representative, while the latter are presentative in character. The ” dream-end cognitions ” are recollections of dream-cognitions, while dream-cognitions resemble direct sense-perceptions. Dream-cognitions are presentative in character, though they arise out of the traces left in the mind by the previous perceptions in the waking condition ; and these presentative dream-cognitions again leave traces in the mind which give rise to ” dream-end cognitions “. Thus dreams-within-drearns are representative in character. 36

Morbid dreams

Caraka and Susruta describe various kinds of dreams which are the prognostics of impending diseases and death. Caraka suggests a physiological explanation of the morbid dreams which precede death. These horrible dreams are due to the currents in the manovahmnadis being filled with very strong flatulent, bilious, and phlegmatic humours before death.38

From this we may infer that dreams are due to the excitation of the manovaha nadi which, in the language of Dr, B. N. Seal, is ” a generic name for the channels along which centrally initiated presentations (as in dreaming or hallucination) come to the sixth lobe of the Manaschakra “, 39

Samkara Misra says that dreams are produced by the mind when it is in the svapnavahansdiznd disconnected with the external sense- organs except the tactual organ ; when the mind loses its connection even with the tactual organ and retires into the punt at there is deep dreamless sleep. Thus dreams are produced when the mind is in the svapnavaha nadi}-

Thus, according to Caraka  the manovaha nadl is the seat of dreams  and according to Samkara Misra, the svapnavaha nadi is the seat of dreams. What is the relation between the manovaha nadl and the svapnavaha nadl ? Dr. B. N. Seal says that according to the writers on Yoga and Tantras, ” the Manovaha Nadl is the channel of the communication of the Jtva (soul) with the Manaschakra (sensorium) at the base of the brain. It has been stated that the sensory currents are brought to the sensory ganglia along different nerves of the special senses. But this is not sufficient for them to rise to the level of discriminative consciousness(savtkalpaka jnand). A communication must now be established between the Jiva (in the Sahasrara Chakra upper cerebrum) and the sensory currents received at the sensorium, and this is done by means of the Manovaha NadL When sensations are centrally initiated, as in dreams and hallucinations, a special Nadi (Svapnavaha Nadi) which appears to be only a branch of the Manovaha Nadi serves as the channel of communication from the Jtva (soul) to the sensorium

References-

1  Vaisesika Siitra (Gujrati Press, Samvat, 1969).., ix, 2, 6-7.

2  Prakaranapancika of alikanatha (Ch.S.S., 1903-1904)., p. 183.

3 Ibid., p, 183.

4  Kiranavall of Udayana (Benares, 1885 and 1887, p. 273.

5  Upaskara of Samkara Misra (Gujrati Press, Samvat, 1969)., ix, 2, 7.

6 Purvadhigamanapeksam paricchedasvabhavam manasarii manoma-traprabhavarii tat svapnajnSnam. , Nyayakandali of Srldhara (V.S.S., Benares, 1895 p. 184..

7 , Nyayakandali of Srldhara (V.S.S., Benares, 1895p. 185.

8  SaptapadarthI of Sivaditya (V.S.S., Benares, 1893).., p. 68

.9 Mitabhssim, p. 68.

10 Nvsyakusumanjali, , p. 9.

11  Kiranavall of Udayana (Benares, 1885 and 1887, p. 273.

12 Umesha Mishra : ” Dream theory in Indian Thought,” The Allahabad University Studies, vol. v, pp. 274, 275.

13  Nyayatltparyadipika of Jayasimhasuri (B.I., 1910)., p. 67

14 Illusions, p. 137.

15 Apparitions and Thought Transference p. 186.

16 Caraka SamMta”, Indriyasthsna, ch. v.

17 Caraka Sarixhita, Indriyasthana, ch v. 2 PBh., p. 184,

18 Compendium of Philosophy p. 48.

19 Sully, I Hustons  p. 139

20 Udbodha eva kathamiticet. Mandataratamadinyayena bakyanamevakbdadinSmupalambkat, antatah sarirasyaivosmadeh. pratipattek, Nyaya-kusuma”njali, ck. Hi, p. 9.

21 Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. v, p. 29.

22 Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics Illusions, p. 139.

23Ibid  Dreams, p. 31, and p. 48,

24 Cf. Conklin, Principles of Abnormal Psychology, p. 342,

25  Upaskara of Samkara Misra (Gujrati Press, Samvat, 1969).  ix, 2, 7,  PEL, p. 184,

26  Nyayakandali of Srldhara (V.S.S., Benares, 1895).,p. 185. 2 p

27 Nyayakusumanjali, ch. iii, p. 9.

28 Caraka Samhita, Indriyasthana, ch. v.

29 Compendium of Philosophy p. 48.

30 Siddhantabindu, p. 189. 6 S.B., iii, 2, 6.

31 Vedantic thought and Culture y p. 172.

32  Vedantic thought and Culture p. 1 84.

33 Compendium of Philosophy,

34 Introduction, p. 48.

35  English translationof Nyayakandali of Srldhara (V.S.S., Benares, 1895).., p. 388.

36  Sully : ” There is sometimes an undertone of critical reflection,which is sufficient to produce a feeling of uncertainty and bewilderment,and in very rare cases to amount to a vague consciousness that the mental experience is a dream.” Illusions, p. 137 n.

37   Nyayakandali of Srldhara (V.S.S., Benares, 1895).., pp. 185-6

38 Caraka Samhits, Indriyasthana, ch. v.

39 The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 221.