Dr. V.K. Maheshwari, Ph.D

Dr. V.K. Maheshwari, Former Principal

K.L.D.A.V(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Behaviourism is  based on the assumption that learning occurs through interactions with the environment. Two other assumptions of this theory are that the environment shapes behavior and that taking internal mental states such as thoughts, feelings and emotions into consideration is useless in explaining behaviour.

The most basic form is associative learning, i.e., making a new association between events in the environment. There are two forms of associative learning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning. One of the best-known aspects of behavioural learning theory is classical conditioning. , Classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. In classical conditioning, the conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus.

Conditioning, is a behavioural process whereby a response becomes more frequent or more predictable in a given environment as a result of reinforcement, with reinforcement typically being a stimulus or reward for a desired response. Early in the 20th century, through the study of reflexes, physiologists in Russia, England, and the United States developed the procedures, observations, and definitions of conditioning. After the 1920s, psychologists turned their research to the nature and prerequisites of conditioning.

Stimulus-response (S-R) theories are central to the principles of conditioning. They are based on the assumption that human behaviour is learned. One of the early contributors to the field, American psychologist Edward L. Thorndike, postulated the Law of Effect, which stated that those behavioral responses (R) that were most closely followed by a satisfactory result were most likely to become established patterns and to reoccur in response to the same stimulus (S). This basic S-R scheme is referred to as unmediated. When an individual organism (O) affects the stimuli in any way—for example, by thinking about a response—the response is considered mediated. The S-O-R theories of behaviour are often drawn to explain social interaction between individuals or groups.

Definition of Classical conditioning:

Learning in which a stimulus initially incapable of evoking a certain response becomes able to do so by repeated pairing with another stimulus that does evoke the response.

A learning process in which an organism’s behaviour becomes dependent on the occurrence of a stimulus in its environment

A process in which a stimulus that was previously neutral, as the sound of a bell, comes to evoke a particular response, as salivation, by being repeatedly paired with another stimulus that normally evokes the response, as the taste of food

A process of changing behaviour by rewarding or punishing a subject each time an action is performed.

Process of behaviour modification by which a subject comes to associate a desired  behaviour with a previously unrelated stimulus.

A process of behaviour modification by which a subject comes to respond in a desired manner to a previously neutral stimulus that has been repeatedly presented along with an unconditioned stimulus that elicits the desired response.

Basic Principles

In order to understand how more about how classical conditioning works, it is important to be familiar with the basic principles of the process.

The Unconditioned Stimulus

The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response. In this example, the smell of the food is the unconditioned stimulus. An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) such as food, generates and instinctual reflexive, unlearned behaviour, such as salivation when eating.

The Unconditioned Response

The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus. The salivation was called an unconditioned response (UCR) because it was not learned In our example, the feeling of hunger in response to the smell of food is the unconditioned response.

The Conditioned Stimulus

The conditioned stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response. In our earlier example, suppose that when you smelled your favorite food, you also heard the sound of a whistle. While the whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food, if the sound of the whistle was paired multiple times with the smell, the sound would eventually trigger the conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the whistle is the conditioned stimulus The bell, formerly a neutral sound to the dog, become a conditioned learned stimulus (CLS).

The Conditioned Response

The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. In our example, the conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound of the whistle. and the salivation a conditioned response (CR).

Fundamental Experiment-

The concept of classical conditioning is studied by every entry-level psychology student, so it may be surprising to learn that the man who first noted this phenomenon was not a psychology at all. Ivan Pavlov was a noted Russian physiologist who went on to win the 1904 Nobel Prize for his work studying digestive processes. It was while studying digestion in dogs that Pavlov noted an interesting occurrence – his canine subjects would begin to salivate whenever an assistant entered the room.

In his digestive research, Pavlov and his assistants would introduce a variety of edible and non-edible items and measure the saliva production that the items produced. Salivation, he noted, is a reflexive process. It occurs automatically in response to a specific stimulus and is not under conscious control. However, Pavlov noted that the dogs would often begin salivating in the absence of food and smell. He quickly realized that this salivary response was not due to an automatic, physiological process.

. While studying the role of saliva in dogs’ digestive processes, Pavlov stumbled upon a phenomenon he labeled “psychic reflexes.” While an accidental discovery, he had the foresight to see the importance of it. Pavlov’s dogs, restrained in an experimental chamber, were presented with meat powder and they had their saliva collected via a surgically implanted tube in their saliva glands. Over time, he noticed that his dogs who begin salivation before the meat powder was even presented, whether it was by the presence of the handler or merely by a clicking noise produced by the device that distributed the meat powder.

Fascinated by this finding, Pavlov paired the meat powder with various stimuli such as the ringing of a bell. After the meat powder and bell (auditory stimulus) were presented together several times, the bell was used alone. Pavlov’s dogs, as predicted, responded by salivating to the sound of the bell (without the food). The bell began as a neutral stimulus (i.e. the bell itself did not produce the dogs’ salivation). However, by pairing the bell with the stimulus that did produce the salivation response, the bell was able to acquire the ability to trigger the salivation response. Pavlov therefore demonstrated how stimulus-response bonds (which some consider as the basic building blocks of learning) are formed. He dedicated much of the rest of his career further exploring this finding.

In technical terms, the meat powder is considered an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the dog’s salivation is the unconditioned response (UCR). The bell is a neutral stimulus until the dog learns to associate the bell with food. Then the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) which produces the conditioned response (CR) of salivation after repeated pairings between the bell and food.

Process of Classical Conditioning

Conditioning is a form of learning in which either (1) a given stimulus (or signal) becomes increasingly effective in evoking a response or (2) a response occurs with increasing regularity in a well-specified and stable environment. The type of reinforcement used will determine the outcome. When two stimuli are presented in an appropriate time and intensity relationship, one of them will eventually induce a response resembling that of the other. The process can be described as one of stimulus substitution. This procedure is called classical (or respondent) conditioning.

Process of conditioning

The entire process of conditioning can be explained like this:

Food——————-Salivation

Bell—-Food————-Salivation

REPEAT

Bell———————Salivation

THIS ASSOCIATION IS CONDITIONING

In technical terms, the meat powder is considered an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the dog’s salivation is the unconditioned response (UCR). The bell is a neutral stimulus until the dog learns to associate the bell with food. Then the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) which produces the conditioned response (CR) of salivation after repeated pairings between the bell and food.

UCS—————-  UCR

CS—UCS————-UCR

REPEAT

CS——————UCR

THIS ASSOCIATION IS CONDITIONING

Laws of Conditioning

Classical Conditioning is based on three laws:

1. If the Conditioned Stimulus ( Bell ) is given after the Unconditioned Stimulus ( Food ) ,there will be no conditioning.
2. If the Conditioned Stimulus ( Bell ) is given before the Unconditioned Stimulus ( Food ) ,the  conditioning will sure to take place.
3. If the Conditioned Stimulus ( Bell ) and the Unconditioned Stimulus ( Food ) ,is given simultaneously, the Conditioning may or may not take place.

If observed carefully the impact of Thorndike’s Law of Effect is clearly visible on these laws.

Other concepts / Empirical Relationships in Classical Conditioning:

Acquisition

Acquisition refers to the first stages of learning when a response is established. In classical conditioning, it refers to the period of time when the stimulus comes to evoke the conditioned response.

In classical conditioning, repeated pairings of the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) eventually leads to acquisition. Remember, the unconditioned stimulus is one that naturally evokes the unconditioned response (UCR). After pairing the CS with the UCS repeatedly, the CS alone will come to evoke the response, which is now known as the conditioned response (CR).

A number of factors can influence how quickly acquisition occurs. First, the salience of the conditioned stimulus can play an important role. If the CS is to subtle, the learner may not notice it enough for it to become associated with the unconditioned stimulus. Stimuli that are more noticeable usually lead to faster acquisition.

Contiguity

Timing plays a critical role. If there is too much of a delay between presentation of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus, the learner might not form an association between the two. The most effective approach is to present the CS and then quickly introduce the UCS so that there is an overlap between the two. As a rule, the greater the delay between the UCS and the CS, the longer acquisition will take

Pavlov  found that the shorter the time between the stimulus and the response, the more quickly a conditioned response could be developed. Ringing the bell immediately before giving food to the dog was more effective than ringing it some longer period of time before feeding. He referred to the time between stimulus and response as contiguity of the stimulus.

Stimulus Generalization

In conditioning, stimulus generalization is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned. For example, if a child has been conditioned to fear a stuffed white rabbit, it will exhibit fear of objects similar to the conditioned stimulus such as a white toy rat.

Stimulus generalization can occur in both classical conditioning and operant conditioning. However, a subject can be taught to discriminate between similar stimuli and to only respond to a specific stimulus

Discrimination

In classical conditioning, discrimination is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

For example, if a bell tone were the conditioned stimulus, discrimination would involve being able to tell the difference between the bell tone and other similar sounds.

Extinction

In psychology, extinction refers to the gradual weakening of a conditioned response that results in the behavior decreasing or disappearing.

In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

In classical conditioning, the reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest period or period of lessened response. If the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are no longer associated, extinction will occur very rapidly after a spontaneous recovery.

For example, in Ivan Pavlov’s classic experiment, dogs were conditioned to salivate to the sound of a tone. Pavlov also noted that no longer pairing the tone with the presentation of food led to extinction of the salivation response. However, after a two hour rest period, the salivation response suddenly reappeared when the tone was presented.

Spontaneous recovery demonstrates that extinction is not the same thing as unlearning. While the response might disappear, that does not meant that it has been forgotten or eliminated.

Pavlov’s Position on problems of Education.-

Pavlov discussed on six typical problems:

1. Capacity.  The capacity to form conditioned reflexes is in part a matter of the type of nervous system; hence, there are some congenital differences in learning ability.
2. Practice.  In general, conditioned reflexes are strengthened with repetition under reinforcement, but care always has to be taken to avoid the accumulation of inhibition, for inhibition may appear even within repeated reinforcement.
3. Motivation. In the usual reflexes, in which salivation is reinforced by food, the animal has to be hungry; drive is particularly important in the case of instrumental responses. Because of the “signalling” function of conditioned stimuli, it is presumed that some sort of drive reduction is usually involved; more contiguous stimulation does not appear to be the basis for learning although there is some lack of clarity on this point.
4. Understanding .Subjective terms are to be avoided, so that Pavlov finds no use for terms such as understanding or insight. Yet his conception of reflex activity is so broad that he does not hesitate to say, “When a connection or association, is formed, this without doubt represents the knowledge of the matter, knowledge of definite relations existing in the external world, but when you make use of them the next time, this is what is called insight. In other words it means utilization of knowledge, utilization of the acquired connection”. This is the characteristic association’s view of understanding: the utilisation of past experience through some kind of transfer. The problem of novelty is not raised.
5. Transfer. Transfer is best considered to be the result of generalization whereby one stimulus serves to evoke the conditioned reflex learned to another. Particularly in the language system, words substitute readily one for another, and thus permit wide generalization.
6. Forgetting. Pavlov did not deal systematically with the retention or forgetting of conditioned reflexes  overtime, partly because the same animals were used over and over again, there conditioned reflexes were greatly over learned, and forgetting was not laboratory problem. The decline of conditioned reflexes through experimental extinction, or other form of inhibition, was always recognised, and he always spoke of conditioned reflexes as temporary. I t is important to distinguish between extinction and forgetting, however, for there is spontaneous recovery following extinction and a weakened conditional reflex is therefore not a forgotten one.

Education Implication of Classical Conditioning:

Emphasis on behaviour: Students should be active respondents to learning, and in the learning process. They should be given an opportunity to actually behave or demonstrate learning. Secondly students should be assessed by observing behaviour, we can never assume that students are learning unless we can observe that behaviour is changing.

Drill and practice: the repetition of stimulus response habits can strengthen those habits. For example, some believe that the best way to improve reading is to have students read more and more. “Practice is important; Students should encounter academic subject matter in a positive climate and associate it with positive emotions; To break a bad habit, a learner must replace one S-R connection with another one (Exhaustion Method, Threshold Method, Incompatibility Method); and, Assessing learning involves looking for behaviour changes

Breaking habits: in order to break habits, that teacher needs to lead an individual to make a new response to this same old stimulus.

Dr. V.K. Maheshwari, Former Principal

K.L.D.A.V(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

The development of education is a continuum, which gathers its past history into a living stream, flowing through the present into the future. It is essential to see the historical background of educational development to understand the present and visualize the future. It is essential  to look briefly at educational developments from the ancient i.e. 2nd millennium BC to the modern period. The development of the education system in India can be broadly divided into five stages

1.  Ancient Period/Vedic Period :

2. Buddhist Period

3. Medieval period.

4. British period

5.Post Independence period

Ancient Period/ Vedic Period  -

In vedic era education had a very prominent place in society. It was being considered as pious and important for society. In the eyes of Aryans, education was the only means to acquire, prosperity in the field of physical, mental, spiritual and social developments. Education was must for everybody for becoming cultured. In absence of education people were considered as uncultured and animal like thing. Education was an instrument to show new paths and knowledge to . Education opens hidden qualities and helps people to attain Salvation. It can be regarded as ―Third Eye‘ of human beings. Through education only a man gets rid from debt of Guru and so was the feeling of people at that time. In short by putting different logic.  Education was the most important aspect of human life of that period. Terms such as knowledge, awakening, humility, modesty etc. are often used to characterize education in the vedic period.

To attain salvation by realizing the truth has been the aims to education during this period only that education was regarded true which helped one be realize this supreme truth. According to the Upanishads truth‘, alone is the knowledge and the other worldly knowledge is untruth. The worldly knowledge was regarded as ignorance. Upanishads maintain that one cannot attain salvation through worldly knowledge because through this, one becomes involved in illusion (Maya).

Buddhist Education System-

In India during the time of Buddha, there was a racial discrimination in the society. This discrimination was according to profession of man, and according to birth. In the society there were four division of society of whom Brahman was superior. Brahmanism dominated the society and established their supremacy in the country. They enjoyed rights for religious training and education. But other category of people deprived of their religious and educational rights. At that time there were 62 heretical doctrines in existence and priesthood got upper hand. In this background a religious revolution started in ancient India in 600 B.C. and a new doctrine or system developed which is called Buddhist doctrine or Buddhist philosophy. It is to be said that on the foundation of Buddhism a new and special Education System originated in ancient India. Buddhism made a tremendous movement which played a valuable role in the development of Education System in ancient India or ancient Buddhist world. It is well-known that with the rise of Buddhism in India there dawned the golden age of India’s culture and civilisation. There was progress in all aspects of Indian civilisation under the impact of Buddhism  There arose many centres of learning which did not exist before.

The  goal of Buddhist education is to attain wisdom. In Sanskrit, the language of ancient India, the Buddhist wisdom was called ―Anuttara-Samyak-Sambhodi‖ meaning the perfect ultimate wisdom. The Buddha taught  that the main objective of our practice or cultivation was to achieve this ultimate wisdom. The Buddha further taught that everyone has the potential to realize this state of ultimate wisdom, as it is an intrinsic part of  nature, not something one obtains externally.

.Buddhism threw its colleges open to all, irrespective of any consideration of caste or country. The rise of organized public educational institutions may be justified attributed to its influence. It raised the international status of India by efficiency of its higher education, which attracted students from distant countries like Korea, China, Tibet and Java. The cultural sympathy which the countries in eastern Asia feel for India even today is entirely due to the work of the famous Buddhist colleges of ancient India. Buddhist education also helped the development of Hindu logic and philosophy by initiating and encouraging comparative study.

Education During Medieval Period( Islamic  Education)-

Islam gives importance to education, which is the process of teaching and acquiring or learning knowledge (which includes beliefs, values, attitudes, manners and skills).Education in Islam plays important role in developing every individual to be successful in realizing the very purpose of man’s creation. Islam attaches such great importance to knowledge and education. When the Qur’an began to be revealed, the first word of its first verse was ‘Iqra’ that is, read. Education is thus the starting point of every human activity. A scholar (alim) is accorded great respect in the hadith. According to a hadith the ink of the pen of a scholar is more precious than the blood of a martyr,  because ascholar builds individuals and nations along positive lines. In this way he bestows a real life to the world. On the one hand Islam places great emphasis on learning, on the other, all those factors which are necessary to make progress in learning have provided by God. One of these special factors is the freedom of research.

Education during British period-

The development of education system during the British period was determined by the needs of the colonial powers.Although, before 1813, Missionaries and various religious groups had brought some basic education unofficially to the Indian masses but it was through the Charter Act of 1813 that a state system of education was officially introduced in the Indian history

Division among the British: Orientalists vs. Anglicists-

The Charter Act created a controversy between the anglicists and orientalists on the medium of instruction. In addition, the Charter Act of 1813 did not clarify the objectives of education and the methods for improvement of literature of the learned 64natives in India. The Charter Act had stressed on allotting the money only. No specific regulations were made for establishing the schools and colleges in India.

Macaulay Minutes-

Lord Macaulay landed in India on June 10, 1834 and was immediately appointed as president of General Committee of Public Instruction. Lord Macaulay wrote a minute on 2ndFebruary 1835, where he made the decision regarding the controversy. Lord Macaulay stressed the implementation of the English language as a medium of instruction through the minute. According to him, English was the best medium of instruction. He held the view that this would enable the emergence of a class of people in the Indian society, who would be well versed in English language, Western ideology, taste and opinion. By introducing the English language for the education of the Indian masses, Macaulay‘s opinion was that the public mind of India might expand under the English system and through the English language. It may educate the people into a capacity for better governance. In the minute, Macaulay wrote, ―We must at present do our best to form a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern-a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English in tastes, in opinions, in morals and in intellects.‖ Thus, Macaulay anglicized  the education in India.

In his minute, Macaulay criticized the oriental learning as ―a single shelf of good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabic‖. Macaulay believed that English should be introduced because it is a language of the ruling class and higher classes of Indians have gained the familiarity.

During East India Company period there was a great demand for English education because it was attached with employment given by East India Company prior to it, British Government in England signed on charters in 1813 and reviewed in 1833. In 1813 the East India Company was compelled to accept responsibility for the education of the Indians. The government wanted the advice of Macaula‘s on the implications of clause 43 of the Charter Act of 1813. Macaula‘s presented his length minutes to Lord Bentick in 1835. In the minute, he advocated education of the classes in India and made a vigorous plea for spreading Western learning through the medium of English. This minute was accepted by Bentick and it opened a new chapter in the educational history of India

Wood’s Education Despatch-

The East India Company had to renew its Charter after every twenty years. Before renewing the Charter in 1853, the British Parliament constitutes a Selection Committee to enquiry into the Progress of education in India and suggests reform. The suggestions of the Committee were issued as a Charter of Education on July 19, 1854 Charles Wood was the president of the Board of Control. So this is known as Wood’s Despatch of 1854        Wood’s Education Despatch formed the basis of the education policy of East india company’s government in India since 1854. Drafted probably at the instance of Sir Charles Wood, President of the Board of control, it was forwarded to the Government of India as Despatch No 49 of 19 July 1854 for ‘creating a properly articulated system of education, from the primary school to the University’. The renewal of the Company’s Charter in 1853 provided the occasion for the despatch. As usual, a Select Committee of the House of Commons held a very thorough enquiry into educational situation in India. Often described as the ‘Magna Carta of modern education in India’, the despatch was one of the wisest state papers prepared by the COURT OF DIRECTORS. It was indeed a landmark in the history of education in modern India and presented a comprehensive plan for the later development of the educational system in the subcontinent.

Hunter Commission 1882.-

After the implementation of the recommendations of Woods Despatch, England entered the Victorian era.  Now the responsibility of Indian education shifted from the company to the Parliament. Queen Victoria wanted peace during her regime. Secondly Christian missionaries had made complaints against the Indian education administration on the ground that education in India was not in line with  Woods Despatch. In the third place, the Country Council Act of 1880 for reforming primary education had been passed in England and education in India was to be reformed on similar lines. Lastly, there were other issues like evaluation of the success of Government schools and the policy of the government with regard to the private enterprise, etc., that needed the attention of the government. Therefore, the same tradition of periodic revision of the policy of the education was adopted. When Lord Ripon was appointed the viceroy of India, a deputation of the General Council of Education requested him to institute an enquiry into Indian Education.. A landmark in the history of education in India is, however, the report of the Hunter Commission submitted in 1882. There were complaints that the Wood’s Dispatch of 1854 had not been properly followed. For this purpose Lord Ripon appointed on February 3, 1882 the Indian Education Commission under the chairmanship of William Hunter, a member of the executive council of viceroy.

The University Commission 1902-

Lord Curzon pointed out that no change had been seen in university education because they failed to follow the guidelines of London University.

Some of the major defects noticed in the development of collegiate education in India were lopsided development of liberal education and to the neglect of professional education in general and technical education in particular, uneven spread of higher education among different communities and followers of different sections, neglect of women education and Indian languages.

Hence it was considered worthwhile to go into various aspects of university education n India. Lord Curzon accorded the top priority to his programme of university reform. He appointed the Indian University Commission with Sir Thomas Raleigh as its Chairman in 1902. Indian members were also associated with the commissions in June of the same year. The commission’s recommendations of university education have been regarded merely rehabilitation and strengthening the existing system‘.

Development  in Education During 1921-1937-

The period (1921-37) is remarkable for two events the introduction of Government of India Acts 1919 and 1935. The first of these introduced diarchy in the provinces a sort of dual government and the second ushered in provincial Autonomy. Some subjects were under popular control and education was one of them. In 1935 all the subjects came under the control of provincial ministers and legislatures. They did their best to expand education to the utmost. The period 1921-37 is significant in the history of Indian education also because it witnessed a number of remarkable events. Laws, which governed universal primary education, were passed. Teaching and residential universities saw the light of the day. An auxiliary committee Simon Commission examined the 102defects of education in 1928. Wood and Abbot Committee on vocational education (1936-37) drew the attention of the public towards the inefficiency of literary education. This period was of great educational thinking in the field of primary education and secondary education. Intermediate education became linked with school education. In the field of higher education the progress was not less unmark able. The quantitative as well as qualitative improvement was exceptional.

The Inter-University Board came into existence as the result of a decision taken at the First conference of Vice-Chancellors in Simla in May 1924. At that time, India, Ceylon and Burma were its members. Today its membership consists of 47 Indian Universities, Universities of Ceylon and Five Indian institutes of Technology. In addition some institutions of the stature of a university are also its associate members. This institution has now been renamed as the Association of Indian Universities.

Establishment of New Universities-

In the field of higher education the progress was not less remarkable. The quantitative as well as qualitative improvement was exceptional. Perhaps it was because of the impact of the Calcutta University Commission (1917-19). Five new universities were created : Delhi (1922), Nagpur (1923), Andhra (1926), and Agra (1927); Travancore (1937). The number of teaching and residential universities increased. The older six universities were reorganized and reformed. For example, Madras University undertook teaching and research work. Bombay University undertook the charge of the school of Chemical  Technology; Allahabad University became a teaching and residential university. The enrolment figures rose up as a result of reform and reorganisation all the universities had Arts and Science faculties.

The medium of instructions continued to be in English. Hostel library and other facilities could not be expanded due to shortage of funds.

The Sadler Commission (Calcutta University Commission, 1917)-

After establishing three universities, namely University of Calcutta, University of Bombay and University of Madras in 1857, it was Lord Curzon who first tried to introduce some administrative reform of the university education (Unit 4) by instituting a University Education Commission in 1902. Academic reform, however, remained totally unattended. In the report of the Commission there was no proposal for establishing new universities. Curzon’s policy of shrinkage and control of higher education received widespread criticism among the nationalist Indians. After the establishment Allahabad University in 1887 no new universities were opened for the next thirty years, but the number of the Colleges increased. At the time of the Government of India Resolution in 1913 there were only five universities in India and the number of colleges was beyond the control of the various universities within their territorial limits. As a result different administrative problems piled up in that period. Sir Asutosh Mukherji was the Vice Chancellor of Calcutta University. He started imparting post-graduate education in the university in 1916 as recommended by the University Education Commission of 1902. This has attracted the attention of the Government. By this time the London University was reorganised and reformed as per recommendations of the Royal Commission under the chairmanship of Lord Halden. Therefore it became a necessity to reform the Indian Universities also. All these circumstances led to the formation of the second university commission. i.e., Calcutta University Commission, 1917.

The Hartog Committee-

When the political movement was at its climax, the national leadership was trying hard to evolve a system of education which could suit the needs of the country By responding to the dissatisfaction felt by the Indian people about the Government of India Act of 1919, the Simon Commission was appointed on November 8, 1927, to inquire into the working of the administration under the Government of India Act, 1919. About this time as agitation against the Government was going on, it was felt necessary to give due importance to education in India. The Government therefore authorised the commission to appoint a Committee to help it in preparing a report on education. The Simon Commission appointed an Auxiliary Committee to enquire into the various aspects of Indian Education under the chairmanship of Sir Philip Hartog. So the commission appointed a committee under the chairmanship of Sir Phillip Hartog to inquire into the conditions of education in India. Sir Phillip Hartog had served as a number of the Sadler Commission.

The Hartog committee was appointed to enquire the organisation of various aspects of education in India and to give its suggestions for its over all improvement and progress. In the words of the Committee, “They were required to report on the organisation of education, on almost every point that organisation needs reconsideration and strengthening, and the resolutions of the bodies responsible for the organisation of education need readjustment.”

The Committee studied the various aspects of education and submitted its report before the commission in 1929, It put forward comprehensive recommendations in regard to various facts of education in India. First, the Committee made some general observations regarding the state of education in India. The committee observed that there was considerable progress made in education by the time. In general, people regarded education as a matter of national importance. Increasing enrolment in primary school indicates that the sense of indifference to education was breaking down and social and political consciousness among the people had also increased. The women, the Muslims and the backward classes had also awakened and there had been rapid progress in the numbers. Although there was general consciousness of the people in education, the Committee was not satisfied with the growth of literacy in the country. With these ideas in view, the Committee presented a comprehensive report. It was valuable in the sense that it tried to feel the pulse of education in India. It made recommendations in regard to primary secondary, higher and also some other aspects of education.

The Wardha Scheme Of Education-

The Wardha Scheme of Education is also known as Nai Talim/Basic Education/Buniyadi Talim (Shiksha)/Basic Shiksha The scheme was the outcome of sound thinking of Ghandiji. who initiated and strengthened several constructive programmes for the economic, educational and social development of the people. He considered education as an effective instrument of national reconstruction.

Wardha scheme of Education 1937 recommended that it was considered desirable to give preference to local persons in appointment as teachers. It was considered necessary to appoint only trained teachers. Two types of curricula as enumerated below were provided for the training of the teachers.

For the first time in 1931 the Government of India invited Abbot, the Chief Inspector of Technical schools, and Wood, the Director of Intelligence, Board of Education, England to advise the Government whether any vocational or practical training should be imparted in primary, secondary and higher secondary schools or whether the technical or vocational institutions already in existence could be improved. The Government was advised to establish a Junior Technical school a part-time Technical school and school of Arts and Crafts in each province.

Abbort Wood Report 1937-

Abbort Wood Report 1937 recommended the establishment of a single polytechnic school where training in many vocations should be given, instead of special individual schools for the training in individually different vocations

The Sargent Report on Education,-

. In the middle forties the Government of India realised that it could no longer be indifferent to the problem of education of the Indian people and there was the need of bringing about radical reform in all aspects of Indian education. As the British became hopeful of its victory in the Second World War, it directed its attention to do something for the Indian people in the field of education. So it advised Sir John Sargent, the Educational Advisor to the Government of India, to prepare a comprehensive scheme of education for educational reform in India.

Education During Post Indepandeny India-

Universities are the seats of higher learning from where the society gets its leaders in Science, Arts and various other fields of national life. University education in India aims at providing knowledge and wisdom which are necessary attributes of a well developed personality. University education is a centre for higher branches of learning. The functions of the university are varied. It provides instruction, conduct research and post-graduate studies, and gives affiliation and extension to the colleges under it. In case of a non-affiliating unitary university, there is no college under it and its function is limited to offering masters programme and conducting research. A university’s scope is national in character. The main purpose of establishing a university in a particular region is to make higher education accessible to all sections of the population within its territorial jurisdiction

University Education Commission 1948: ( Radha Krishnan Commission)-

With the dawn of  independence on August 15.1947, emerged a new thinking to reform and recast a system of education which may meet the new challenges, new aspirations and new needs of Free India. The exercise of change started with the constitution of University Education Commission in 1948 with Dr. S. Radhakrishnan as its chairman.

The  Commission was appointed with the specific aim ‘to report on Indian University Education and suggest improvements and extensions that may be desirable to suit present and future requirements of the country’. The decision was due to the realization that a reconstruction of university education was essential for a national – cultural resurgence as well as for meeting the requirements of scientific, technical and other man – power which India needed for its socio-economic development in the wake of the independence in 1947.

Secondary education Commission ( Mudaliar Commission)-

After achieving the independence in 1947, both the public and the Government began to take keen interest in the development of secondary education. Although the number of secondary schools and its enrolment began to significantly increase even before India’s attaining independence, the quality of education imparted was unable to meet the changing socio-economic needs of the country. As such, the need for reform was strongly felt. The university Education Commission also remarked that our secondary education remained the weakest link in our educational machinery and it needed urgent reforms. Meanwhile with the attainment of independence, the political situation of the country also underwent a complete transformation. Education also needed a fresh look, calling for a new outlook which was appropriately voiced by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, the then Education Minister in his presidential address to the Central Advisory Board of Education in 1948. The Central Advisory Board of Education at its 14th meeting held in January 1948 recommended the appointment of a commission to examine the prevailing system of Secondary Education in the country and to suggest measures for its reorganization and improvement

The Secondary Education Commission was appointed by the Government of India Resolution on 23rd September 1952 under the Chairmanship of Dr. A. Lakshmanaswami Mudaliar, Vice-Chancellor, Madras University to examine the prevailing system of secondary education in the country and to suggest measures for its reorganisation and improvement with reference to the aims, organisation and content of secondary education, its relationship to primary and higher education and the interrelation of secondary schools of different types. The Commission was inaugurated on 6th October, 1952. It submitted its Report on June 1953.

Kothari Commission 1964.-

In the history of Indian Education, it is the first Commission to make a coordinated and comprehensive survey of all the branches of education.

The Commission was appointed under provision of a resolution of the Government of India, dated 14th July, 1964and it began its task on October 2,1964 . The Commission included eminent educationists in diverse fields from India and abroad. It consisted of total 17 members, where 14 members, 1 member – secretary, 1 Associate – Secretary and Dr. D.S. Kothari, chairman of the U.G.C. was appointed as the chairman of the commission. Therefore, it is also known as the Kothari Commission. Among the members of the commission 5 educationists were from England, America, France, Japan and Russia. J.P. Naik was appointed as number secretary of the commission and J.F McDougall as associated secretary. The Commission submitted its report to the Government on June 29,1966. It was laid on the Table of the House on August 29, 1966.The report of the Commission,  is a voluminous document of about 700 pages. It has been hailed as referred for all change and reform in Education. Although it is 20 years old, yet it maintains its fragrance and freshness. Even the new National Policy on Education (1986) has been mainly based on its recommendations. It is termed as Bible for Teachers‘ and should be read with flair.

The Commission will advice the Govt. on national pattern of education and on the general principles and policies for the development of education at all stages and in all its aspects. It need not, however, examine the problems of medical or legal education, but such aspects of these problems as are necessary for its comprehensive enquiry may be looked into.

All these three commission gave very pertinent, meaningful and relevant recommendations to provide new directions to the prevailing system of education in order to meet changing needs and aspirations of the society. Apart from bringing minor patches of change here and there, the structure and system of education remained where it was. The target of compulsory universal education  remained a dream. Vocationalisation of secondary education was only on papers. Revitalising the standards of education continued to be a slogan. Nothing was done to make education job oriented. The aims of higher  education were never defined or concretised. The students of universities and colleges after completion of their education, continued to be unsuccessful job-hunters.

Under this melee and dismal scenario of education, emerged a new thinking from our youthful Prime Minister Shri Rajiv Gandhi .Immediately, after taking over the reigns of the Government, he pledged to do something practically after evolving a new pattern of education through National Policy on Education. in August 1985, he came out with a document ―Challenge of Education  – a Policy perspective.‖ The emergence of this document was an important stage in the process of reviewing and reshaping the education system to enable it to meet the challenges of the future and also to improve its efficiency and quality. This document categorically stated that a policy takes concrete shape only in the process of implementation. If those involved with programme planning, resource allocation and the actual operation of the teaching learning process, do not understand their tasks or take these casually, no worthwhile results can accrue. This document successfully provided the basis for a nation-wide debate to formulate the new education policy.

Rammurthy Review Committee-

The committee to review the National Policy on Education 1986, was formed on 7thNovember 1990 with Acharya Ramamurthy as Chairman and sixteen others as members. This Committee‘s report bears the title ―Towards an Enlightened and Humane Society‖. The Committee was appointed to review the National Policy on Education 1986 and make recommendations regarding the revision of the policy and action necessary for implementation of the revised policy within a time-frame.

Present Scenario

The above analysis shows that even after 40 years of Independence, India is lagging behind in the field of education. The colonial legacy still dominates the education policy. Education in India, from the beginning has been catering to the needs of the selected group of the community. The common people, their needs and aspirations were never considered. There were attempts to change the education system whenever there was a Crisis in the economy. In the ancient, and post Independence periods it received the same type of treatment, which resulted in further inequalities in the society. This is partly a result of the way the policies have been formulated

.India as a geopolitical entity definitely came into existence on Aug 15, 1947 . It was freed of any foreign control on the date mentioned above, but India as its people in totality was not granted independence. Yet, looked at in the hindsight, the assumptions may be challenged. Every Indian citizen, of any class, creed or caste, was guaranteed liberty, equality and justice in its constitution that came into force in 1950. The English colonials went away, but the colonization remained, in essence, intact. The white sahib left, but the brown sahib took his place smoothly and the transition was complete. A postcolonial perspective of the things reveals that the discriminatory power structure was left intact and was strengthened in the years to come by those with vested interests. Class, religion and caste became the bases for a very rigid stratification of the Indian society. Social mobility was the only means, apart from a nearly impossible or hopelessly and vaguely distant revolution, to change one’s status.

The English had gone, but they had left behind their legacy, the whole political system of India, along with its institutions that ran the whole nation, beginning from district to national level. They had also left a class of rulers in their place that consisted of a very strong and irreplaceable bureaucracy. It was this “culture determining group, the so called elites of India, appeared to be even more powerful than the legislature or the judiciary. The one language that acted as the force binding all the persons in the upper echelons of this bureaucracy was English in both pre- and post-independence india. In India, those who ruled generally interacted in English. Moreover, English remained the official language of interdepartmental communication. Although, the constitution of India had specified 26 January 1965 as the date on which English would no longer be used as an official language of the new state. Since then, in spite of attempts to phase out English, practical difficulties in implementing the original constitutional mandate have convinced the successive governments to leave the status quo undisturbed.

Dr. V.K. Maheshwari, Former Principal

K.L.D.A.V(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

In India during the time of Buddha, there was a racial discrimination in the society. This discrimination was according to profession of man, and  according to birth. In the society there were four division of man of whom Brahman was superior. Brahmanism dominated the society and established their supremacy in the country. They enjoyed rights for religious training and education. But other category of people deprived of their religious and educational rights. At that time there were 62 heretical doctrines in existence and priesthood got upper hand. In this background a religious revolution started in ancient India in 600 B.C. and a new doctrine or system developed which is called Buddhist doctrine or Buddhist philosophy. It is to be said that on the foundation of Buddhism a new and special Education System originated in ancient India. Buddhism made a tremendous movement which played a valuable role in the development of Education System in ancient India or ancient Buddhist world. It is well-known that with the rise of Buddhism in India there dawned the golden age of Indias culture and civilisation. There was progress in all aspects of Indian civilisation under the impact of Buddhism  There arose many centres of learning which did not exist before

Aims of education

The goal of Buddha’s teaching-the goal of Buddhist education is to attain wisdom. In Sanskrit, the language of ancient India, the Buddhist wisdom was called ―Anuttara-Samyak-Sambhodi‖ meaning the perfect ultimate wisdom. The Buddha taught us that the main objective of our practice or cultivation was to achieve this ultimate wisdom. The Buddha further taught us that everyone has the potential to realize this state of ultimate wisdom, as it is an intrinsic part of our nature, not something one obtains externally.

The chief aim of Buddhist  education was all round development of child’s personality. This included his physical , mental, moral and intellectual development.The aim of Buddhist Education is to make a free man, a wise, intelligent, moral, non-violent & secular man. Students became judicious, humanist, logical and free from superstitious. Students became free from greed, lust and ignorance. Buddhist Education was wide open and available to the people of all walks of life. The principal goal of the Buddhist Education is to change an unwise to wise, beast to priest.

The Buddhist education system aimed at regaining our intrinsic nature. it also teaches absolute equality which stemmed from Buddha‘s recognition that all sentient beings possess this innate wisdom and nature. Buddha‘s teaching helps us to realize that innate, perfect ,ultimate wisdom .With wisdom, we can then solve all our problems and turn suffering into happiness.

In the Buddhist era, religion was given top priority and education was imparted through it. The chief aim of education was propagation of religion and inculcation of religious feelings and education served as a mean to achieve salvation or nirvana.

Preparation for life, there was a provision for imparting wordily and practical knowledge along with religious education so that when the students entered normal life they may be able to earn their livelihood.

The nature of mass education

In the early period Buddhist Education was limited within the monasteries and only for the members of the monastery. But later on it was open to all, even lay people got scope to have education in those institutions. In modern days Buddhist Education became wide open and embraced people of all walks of life. The aim of Buddhist Education is to change an unwise to wise, beast hood to Buddha hood.

Buddhist Education made revolutionary change in the society. The Buddhists in the world first made Education open to all. Students irrespective of caste, creed, religion got opportunity to have education which was denied by the superior class in the society. In India also, in Vedic Educational schools students from lower classes were refused to get admission.

The monasteries or Buddha Vihars were the chief centres of learning and only the Budhist monks could be admitted to them for education. Thus there was no planned arrangement for mass education as such during the period. It form this position it would be wrong to construce that the Buddhist monks were unmindful of the education of the people in general. So at the time of begging alms the monks used to remove the religious doubts of the people through their interesting conversation or short and alp lectures. Thus the people in general received moral and religious education from the monks.

Women education-

Women education during Buddhist period was at its lowest ebb, as the women folk were despised in the sense that Lord Buddha had regarded them as the source of all evils. So he had advised during his life time not to  admit women inmonasteries.but after some time due to the insistence of his dear pupil Anand, Buddha had permitted about 500 women along with his step mother for admission in the Vihars with many restriction and reservations.

when Buddhist monasteries had developed into colleges of international reputation, women did not receive any education because of their early marriages. In the early history  of Buddhism, however the permission was given to women to enter the order and gave a fairly good impetus to female education, especially in aristocratic and commercial sections of society. Large number of ladies from these circles joined the order and became life-long students of religion and philosophy. Their example must have given an indirect encouragement to the spread of education among lay women as well.

Besides this, the rules of admission of women in Sangh were hard enough. Two years of probation was fixed for women-monks for their permanent membership .Strict rules were enforced for women monks. . The women monks were not allowed to meet any male monk in loneliness and their residence was arranged separately at a distant place. They were not given any permanent post in the sangh. Some monk could give her religious instruction twice a month in the presence of another monk. The assent of the whole Sangh was also considered essential. Moreover, they had to live separately, and they were instructed by a special monk twice in a month. They could not live lonely with the teacher too. Buddhist Sangh had given attention to the cultural development and social uplift of the women. Mostly women entered the Sangh out of keen interest and deep religious feelings. Some had also joined it to get rid of the troubles of the wordly affairs. As the Bhikshunis did not like to maintain inferior position, so they naturally were more interested in the studies leading pious life. Though, Buddhist literature does not speak much of the system of the education of Bhikshunis, yet there are some references of new comer Bhikshunis and taking charge of their education. It makes clear that there must have been some arrangement for their education.

There were Bhikshunis whose spiritual knowledge was very high and they could influence a good number of people..Many Bhikshunis took the duties of social services also. They serve the sick, orphans, etc., and considered it to be their prime duty. Some of them had studied the philosophy deeply and had become poetess and writers. . Some of them had studied even politics and took active part in politics of the day. Some of them had even gone to foreign countries to preach Buddhism. Sheelbhattarika, Prabhudevi and Viyanka were famous in those days as poets and writers. The sister of the Emperor Asoka Sanghamitra was very famous Bhikshunis, who had done remarkable services of Buddhism

Qualities and Responsibilities of the teacher-

The teacher himself must spend at least ten years as a monk and necessarily must have the purity of character, purity of thoughts and generosity. Both the teacher and student were responsible to the monastery. But regarding education, clothes, food and residence of the student monk, the teacher was fully responsible. The teacher was also responsible for any treatment of the student whenever he fell ill.

The duties of the teachers were imparting education to the students, writing Book, propagation of religion, discussion, and arrangement of debate for the clarification of serious subjects. The teachers were responsible for physical, mental, spiritual and moral development of the students. Teachers loved the students and helped them in every affair. They also took care of them during their diseases and agony. The teachers were responsible for their food, accommodation and other necessaries of livelihood. They kept eyes on the all round development of the students. Specially they were serious about the obeyance of the Sangha rules, meditation and concentration to their learning.

Both the teacher and the student were responsible to the monastery or the Buddhist order. But regarding education, clothes , food and residence of the student monk, the teacher was wholly responsible. The teacher was also responsible for any treatment of the student whenever he fell ill. The teacher used to bestow all the affection to his student and used to educate his through lecture and question answer method.

Buddhist philosophy admit the possible of attaining peace here and now, though, it start with a pessimistic note. Teacher, therefore, need not have any cry of despair. Bhikshus were the teacher. Buddhist vihar as or monasteries have their methods of Imitation and training for the apprentices. The preceptor must give his disciple, all possible intellectual and spiritual help and guidance. There was mutual esteem between the teacher and the pupil. There relations were like father and son. The teacher was regarded as spiritual father or intellectual father of the student.

During Budhist period the place of teacher in the scheme of education was very important. There were the categories of teachers – Acharyas and Upadhayas. According to Sutras Literature Acharya may admit according to his unfettered discretion, a number of pupils, who would have to live with him at this house, for a minimum period of twelve years. He would not accept any fees from the pupils under this instruction. The progress shown by pupil was the only factor that determined the continence of his apprenticeship.

Concept of Student

The teachers were highly qualified. The aim of Buddhist Education is to make a free man, a wise, intelligent, moral, non-violent & secular man. Students became judicious, humanist, logical and free from superstitious. Students became free from greed, lust and ignorance. Buddhist Education was wide open and available to the people of all walks of life. The principal goal of the Buddhist Education is to change an unwise to wise, beast to priest.

The teachers were the guardian of the students.  They were responsible for physical, mental, spiritual and moral development of the students. Since Educational Institution (Monasteries) was residential therefore the relationship between the teachers and the students were very very cordial.

The student was expected to serve his teacher with all devotion. On rising in the morning the student will arrange everything for the daily routine of the teacher. He will cook his food and clean his clothes and utensils. Whatever he acquired through begging alms, he would place before teacher. The student had to prepare himself to receive education at any time whenever the teacher required him.

The Budhist system , enjoins upon the pupil the duty of serving this preceptor as a part of education. The pupils is to rise early in morning from the bed and give his teacher teeth-cleanser and water to rinse his mouth with; then, preparing a seat for him, serve him rice- milk in rinse his mouth with; then, preparing as seat for him, serve him rice milk in rinsed jug, and after his drinking it, wash the vessel and sweep the place. Afterwards he is to equip him for his begging round by giving him fresh undergarments, girdle, his two upper garments, and his alms- bowl rinsed and filled with water and then is to dress and equip himself similarly if he wants to accompany his teacher but must not walk too far from or near wants to accompany his teacher but must not walk too far from or near wants to accompany his teacher but must not walk too far from or near him. He is not to interrupt his teacher in speaking, even if he makes a mistake. There were also rules for the expulsion of a pupil by his teacher. In five cases a Saddhiviharika ought to be turned away; when he does not feel great affection for his Upajjhaya, nor great inclination towards him, nor much shame, nor great reverence, nor great devotion.

Sangha (Monastic) life was residential; therefore a cordial relationship between the teachers and the students grew up. Their relationship can be compared with the relationship of a father and a son. The teachers were the guardians and sincere for their mutual relationship, happiness, development and responsibilities.

Admission

Admission in monastery-monasteries was the centre for imparting education during the Buddhist period. For admission the student had to present himself before the teacher and request him for giving education. The teacher was fully responsible for education of his pupil. In turn, the pupil had also to be responsive to the instructions received from the teacher. The student was not at all accountable to any other Bhikshuk in the monastery.

The novices first entered into the Sangha (Bhikkhu Sangha), then had to follow the monastic rules and Sangha rules. Even today these rules are followed. There are many rules regarding food, dress, bed room, meditation, dedication and other rules as laid down by the Sangha. They had to undergo with physical exercise for maintenance of their health. They had to clean the campus, rooms, halls, serve the teachers (Achariya) and assist them in various field. This was the primary duties of the students     After admission the students had to follow monastic rules along with their syllabus and they were classified according to merit. The period of Education was 12 years.

. They had to follow the advice of the teachers and obey them. In this way they had to pass twelve years in learning. Students put questions to the teachers; teachers answered the question and discussed matters related to their Education. Students had to perform daily routine works beyond learning.

The teacher of a budhist monastery were empowered to expel any student on charge of misconduct or any type of  serious disobedience. However, the student was expelled only when it was definitely ascertained that he lacked faith and respect for the teacher and the other things related to the sanctity of the monastery. After the death of the teacher or when the teacher changed his religion or left the monastery for elsewhere, the students also deserted the monastery. The education of the concerned students ended then and there.

Pabbaja ceremony

Pabbaja was an accepted ceremony of the Buddhist monasteries. Pabbaja means going out . According to this ceremony the students after being admitted to a monastery had to renounce all his worldly and family relationship. An individual belonging to any caste could be admitted to a monastery and after being admitted he did not belong to any caste. ‘.After admission he had to change his old clothes and all old ways and the manners of living. For the Pabbajja ceremony the minimum age was eight years.

For pabbaja ceremony the individual had  to get his head fully shaved and put on yellow clothes. In this shape he was presented before the presiding Bhikshu. On  presentation this individual would pray for admission to the monastery. On his prayer the head Bikshu would administer three basic advices:

(1)   I take refuse with Budha.

(2)   I take refuge with religion.

(3)   I take refuge with the order.

The aspirant for admission used to pronounce these advices very distinctly. Then his admission was permitted. On being admitted the individual was called a Sharman.

Rules for shramner—

1. Not to kill any living being

2. Not to accept anything given to him.

3. Live free from the impurity of character.

5. Not to tell lie

6. Not to take food at improper time

7. Not to use luxurious things

Upasampada ceremony

After pabbaja the Buddhist monk had to undergo the Upasampada ceremony. This ceremony was different from pabbaja ceremony. . After the Pabbajja ceremony education continued for twelve years. When the student received twelve years education he had to undergo the Upasampada ceremony , that it is at the age of twenty years,Upasampada ceremony was performed. This ceremony was democratic in nature.  The Sharman has to present himself in front before all other monks of the monastery. One could be admitted for this ceremony only when the majority of the monks voted in favour of the same. After this ceremony the Sharman was regarded as full- fledge member of the monastery. On this occasion all his worldly and family relationships ended.

Discipline

The Core of Buddha’s teaching-the Buddha teaching contains three major points discipline, meditation and wisdom. Wisdom is the goal and deep meditation or concentration in the crucial process toward achieving wisdom. Discipline through observing the precepts, is the method that helps one to achieve deep meditation; wisdom will then be realized naturally. Buddha‘s entire teaching as conveyed in the sutras never really depart from these three points.

After getting education in the Buddhist schools, colleges and universities one can not do any injustice, tell a lie, commit theft, can not kill, can not be addicted in wine and make himself free from moral turpitude. In this way students become free from greed, lust, enmity and ignorance.

Buddhism encompasses the entire collection of works by Buddha Shakyamuni and is called the Tripitaka.This can be classified into three categories sutra, Vinaya (precepts or rules) Sastra (Commentaries) which emphasize meditation, discipline and wisdom respectively.

The monk and the students in Buddhist period were following the ‗simple living and high thinking‖principle.their lives were full of purity, nobelness, dutifulness and humanity and are suppose to follow the Astang Marg- the word Samma  means ‘proper’, ‘whole’, ‘thorough’, ‘integral’, ‘complete’, and ‘perfect’ -

1. Samma-Ditthi — Complete or Perfect Vision

2. Samma-Sankappa — Perfected Emotion or Aspiration,

3. Samma-Vaca — Perfected or whole Speech

4. Samma-Kammanta — Integral Action.

5. Samma-Ajiva — Proper Livelihood.

.  6. Samma-Vayama  — Complete or Full Effort, Energy or Vitality

7. Samma-Sati — Complete or Thorough Awareness.

8. Samma-Samadhi — Full, Integral or Holistic Samadhi.

Syllabus :

Buddhist Education system developed on the basis of some basic principles. This education gave emphasis on the moral, mental and physical development and also to divert the students towards the Sangha rules and guide them to follow it. The main stress was given to have a clear idea of Tripitaka which consists of Sutta Pitaka, Binoy Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka. The entire Tripitaka consists of Buddhas teachings, message, philosophy and rules for the Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunies.

The curriculum was chiefly spiritual in nature. It was because the chief aim of education was to attain salvation. So the study of the religious books was most important. This type of curriculum was meant only for the monks. Besides these spinning, weaving, printing of the clothes, tailoring, sketching, accountancy, medicines, surgery and coinage were the other subjects of Budhist education.

At the initial stage medium of education was mother tongue, later it included Pali and Prakrit and in the following days Sanskrit also included as a medium of instruction. Specially the Mahayana Teachers achieved distinction in practicing Buddhism in Sanskrit. A special Sanskrit Buddhist literature developed. Mention may be made here that at the hands of Nagarjun, Asanga, Basubandhu, Santideva, Aryadeva and Candrakisti Buddhist philosophy and literature made tremendous progress through Sanskrit.

In later period according to the demand of the society and professional education, art, sculpture, architecture, medicine also included in the syllabus. Buddhist Education came out from the religious arena and went out for the benefit of the mankind.

There were two types of education primary and higher education. In primary education reading, writing and arithmetic were taught and in higher education religion philosophy Ayurveda, military training was included. Everyone was free to choose his subject without any restriction.

Vocation education was not ignored during the budhist system of education. The monks of Vihar were taught spinning, weaving and sewing in order that they meet their clothing requirement. They were taught architecture as well. Education in architecture enabled them to build up new Vihars or repair the old ones. Similarly the householders following Buddhism but living outside Vihar were given training in different type of and also earn their livelihood.

It is to be mentioned that Buddhist Educational Syllabus included Vedic subjects also. In this way difference of Buddhist & Vedic Education wiped out and united. This was a historic development in the history of Education in India.

Teaching Method :

At first there was private and group teachings. Later it developed into class room. In due course Sangharamas developed into residential college and universities. In the history of Education those universities played major role in the propagation of Buddhism, Buddhist history, Art & Culture. In those universities world famous scholars like Atisa Dipankar, Silabrada, Santarakshit were the teachers. Many valuable books were written. We still remember the glory of the universities like Nalanda, Vikramsila, Sompuri, Salban, Jagaddal, Pandit Vihar, Taxila. The supremacy of those universities were unparallel. Students from China, Myanmar, Thailand, Gandhara and all parts of ancient India came to have their education in those universities. Buddhist Education is a combination between individual and classroom educatio

The main of the Budhist monks was to propagate Buddhism .Hence some Acharyas like Sariputta, Mahayaggalva, Aniruddha, Rahula, etc gave the importance to tours for educating peopleAfter completion of the education the student were encouraged to undertake long tours to gain the real and practical knowledge.

.Conferences were arranged on every full moon and 1st day of month in the Budhist sanghs. The monks of different sanghs assembled and put forward their doubts freely. The attendance of every monk was compulsory in such conference.On the beginning and close of every month learned people used to assemble together. This type of assembly together was a very important part of Budhist education. The purpose of this assembly was to maintain the moral standards of all the monks, because the total education was based on morality. It was compulsory for all the monks to be present in this assemble so much so that even ill monks used to try to attend it anyhow. If due to illness it was not possible for monk to come, then assembly was held near his residence. This assembly was quite democratic and it has immense moral impact on all concerned. In order to win discussion or Shastrartha and impress the general public, it was necessary to improve the power of discussion. This was also needed to satisfy the critics and opposing groups and establish ones own cult. Thus, rules were framed for discussion. : The importance of discussion encouraged the logic in the Budhist period. The controversial matters could not be decided without logical argument. Logic was also useful in the development of the mental power and knowledge

-to established the disputes point the following evidences of eight kinds were required theory, cause, example,parallelism, contradiction, evidence, argument and induction. the important of discussion encouraged the logic in the Buddhist period. The controversial matters could not be decided without logical arguments.

The curriculum was spiritual in nature. The aim of education was to attain salvation. So the study of religious books was most important. Sutta, Vinaya and Dhamma Pitak were the main subjects prescribed for study. Budhist education aimed at purity of character. Like Vedic education it was training for moral character rather than psychological development of the students. One has to attain the stage of Bodhisattva. Mental and moral development was emphasized:

The method of teaching was mostly oral in nature.  Though the art of writing had been well developed up to Budhist period yet, due to shortage and no availability of writing materials, verbal education was prevalent as it was in Vedic age.  The teacher used to give lessons to the novices who learnt them by heart. The teacher used to put questions on the learning the lesson by heart. Teacher gives lecture on good behaviour and required topics and students  were listen with attention    In early days teaching was a hearing system. The teachers gave lectures; students heard it and kept it in their memory. In due course it developed into dialogue and comparison method. The teachers used to teach the students on the basis of telling stories, arranging dialogue. Sometimes debate and discussions were arranged to give idea of the subject matter as well as determination of truth, subsequently writing system introduced.Afterwords students were expected to memories the same. The teacher educates the students through lectures and question answer method. Attendance of every monk was compulsory. The medium of Buddhist education was the common language of the people.

some Buddhist monks are more interested in isolated spiritual meditation in lonely forests and caves. Only those monks were considered fit for lonely meditation who had fully renowned the worldly attraction and had spent enough time in the Sanghs has gained the efficiency for solitary meditation.

MERITS OF BUDDHIST EDUCATION

1. Well organized centers- Buddhist education was imparted in well organized centers, monasteries and Vihara which were fit places for the purpose.

2. Cosmopolitan-Buddhist education was free from communal narrowness.

3. Simple and austere-Bhikshus led a life of austerity and simplicity.36

4. Total development- Buddhist education laid much emphasis on the physical mental and spiritual development of the students.

5. Disciplined Life- both the teachers and students led disciplined life.

6. Ideal student teacher relationship.

7. Interational importance- Buddhist education helped to gain international importance it also developed cultural exchange between India and other countries of the world.

4.6 DEMERITS OF BUDDHIST EDUCATION

1. Buddhist education could not give the proper attention to the occupational, industrial and technical education.

2. It gave severe blow to the social development because it derided family ties. Leaving their family life Buddha Bhikshus devoted their whole lives to sangh and Buddhism.

In the ancient period Buddhist Monasteries and in the later period Buddhist Universities played major role in developing Buddhist Education. In the institutions teachers were highly qualified and sincere to their duties. The main aim of Buddhist Education is to make a free man, an intelligent man, a wise, moral, talented, non-violent and secular man. Buddhist Education make man judicious, humanist, logical and free from superstitions

It is a matter of  great pride that Buddhist Education crossed Indian Sub-continent and expanded upto China, Korea, Japan, Tibet, Mongolia, Srilanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodian, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, with the rise and development of Buddhism in those countries. In those countries Buddhist Education has made tremendous progress with the inclusion of modern subjects in the syllabus. Today in order to make more popular more useful and modern subjects have to be included such as English, Science, Medicine, Engineering, Commerce, Computer and Information Technology. We are happy that the name of the countries which I mentioned have made tremendous development of Buddhist Education with the inclusion of modern subjects. They have made more facilities for the lay students. i Buddhist Education syllabus shall have to be incorporated with modern subject.

Dr. V.K. Maheshwari, Former Principal

K.L.D.A.V(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Rural is rural, Urban is urban-Never the twain shall meet, seemsto be the right maxim. In India, Education for the rural masses has been an afterthought here. The government, educational planners and institutions often clamour for oft-beaten courses suited to urban needs. The same courses are forced down the throat of the few motivated rural folks who venture and aspire for the fewer educational opportunities available to them.

There is a factual saying that India lives in villages..The present scenario of the rural education in India can at best be described as bizarre. There are colleges in rural blocks teaching Topology in Mathematics, C –programming in computer science, Theory of relativity  in physics and Robotics in Electronics. At the same time, there are tens of thousands of villages without any school or having poorly equipped primary schools. Obviously, education occupies the last priority in the minds of the rural folks when caught between these two extremes. This situation is alarming and needs to be corrected.

The anomaly is present in spite of the commendable efforts by government and voluntary agencies through numerous development programmes. The imbalance in the rural development is not due to  lack of programmes but it is more due to highly incompatible and inadequate educational facilities. Hence , the core of the problem is improper education. It is rightly said that development does not start with goods, it starts with people and their education, organisation and discipline.

Proper education means the right type of education providing the exact type of skill and knowledge which will address the day to day problems and the immediate future aspirations of the rural folks. The case in point is the advisability of starting hi-tech engineering colleges conducting advanced courses in electronics and computer sciences in rural areas. The ventures of this kind again satisfy the insatiable amditions of wealthy urbanites or wards of rich landlords who study in private rural colleges for the sake of degrees. Does  it really benefit the impoverished rural folks ? Hence the necessity arises to identify the real needs of the rural India and structure the courses accordingly.

Generally, the educationists and the politicians provide lip service for strengthening the primary educational facilities in rural areas. In reality, very little has been done so far. The main focus of the efforts of government, voluntary agencies and industries in rural areas should be channelizing adequate funds for primary and secondary education in rural areas. The need for better equipment, staff, building, textbooks and commitment for promoting quality education at the primary and secondary levels in rural areas is long overdue. The schools of this type alone can act as catalysts to eradicate illiteracy in true sense in the long run. The other gimmicks and kneejerk programmes may at best serve only the propaganda machinery of the promoters. After schooling, the rural literates will need technical schools, agricultural polytechnics, rural medical institutes of very good quality and not necessarily too much hi-tech ones. The better performers of such institutes  can be encourage to go for high-tech institutes situated in urban areas on priority basis. The present trend seems to be exactly the opposite. At present, the education up to high school level or higher demands  the same amount of expertise from rural as well as urban people though the rural folks have been a great disadvantage in every respect. The stringent, though not related to real life , curriculum forced on the villagers leads to high dropouts and failures among them. The ultimate effect is that more and more rural population resign to their fate with agriculture as the sole occupation. Hence we have more mouths to feed with lesser and lesser compatibles skills to their credit.

Impact of Educational Gap

The widening of gap between urban and rural educational requirements has its own side-effects; The medical education is a prerogative of urban elite has left the rural folks at the mercy of fate as far as basic medical facilities are concerned. Even the government directive asking trained doctors to serve in the rural areas has drawn flak. Majority of doctors complete the assignments as a  ritual rather than as a commitment.

Another aspect to note is the consternation with courses that are connected even remotely with the word “rural”. Hence the courses in agriculture, rural management, dairy management, etc occupy very low priority in status though they offer better employment opportunities if pursued seriously. These courses need to  be elevated to a level where they will enjoy prestige and privilege comparable to engineering, medical and general management courses.

A great gap also exists in the language used for learning and teaching in rural and urban areas.While English is actively promoted in urban educational system, rural areas  reel  under the onslaught of English for higher education and local languages for school level education. Thus the rural masses are not only subjected to alien courses for learning but also an alien language. Hence, when it comes to competition for any white collar post or for that matter any decent post, they always stand in a ‘no win’ position. With fifteen different languages and hundreds of dialects in india, the solution seems to be evasive one. The only way seems to be train the rural masses in local language and emphasize strongly on English as a compulsory course right from primary level. The greatest emphasis on English right from the beginning as a major component of rural education can only help to acquire better exposure with global environment. It can also help to assimilate newer techniques for rural development in agriculture, fishery, rural crafts and to provide better economic infrastructure from within.

Integrated Rural Development and Rural Education

The two concepts of rural development and rural education are intertwined with each other to such an extent that it become impossible to talk of one without the other. Many include rural education as a part of rural development. This approach relegates rural education to the last priority as it involves money and the results will not be immediately visible.

Rural development, infect consists of strategies, policies, and programmes for the development of rural areas and the promotion of activities carried out in such areas as agriculture, forestry, fishery, rural crafts and industries, the building of the social and economic infrastructure.

Further, the following areas have been of special importance for the programmes of integrated rural development,

A-Harnessing local human resources

B-Decentralisation of manufacturing industries

C-Cooperative  or group action on the part of rural poor

D-Economic and social infrastructure

E-Diversification of agriculture

F-Functional literacy

The ills in rural development lie not in lack of programmes, but in neglecting the most fundamental input called proper rural education. The word functional literacy is vague and serve no purpose except making many to read a few lines. The real need is to equip the rural masses for rational and scientific thinking and apply the education for their own betterment.

Dr. V.K. Maheshwari, Former Principal

K.L.D.A.V(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Rakhi Maheshwari, Research Scholar

Singhania University, Rajasthan, India

Webster defines education as “the process of educating or teaching.. Educate is further defined as “to develop the knowledge, skill, or character of…” Thus, from these definitions, we might assume that education means to develop the knowledge, skill, or character of students.

Teaching is a complex activity. It is a process in which students are provided with a controlled environment for interaction with the  purpose to promote  a definite learning in  them.  The environment provided to students is constituted by  the content, the teacher who organizes and provides specific  learning  experiences, different  ways  and  means  of  providing  learning experiences and  the school setting. All these components, called instructional components, interact in an interdependent and coordinated manner, in order to bring about the pre-specified desirable changes  in  the students

Conventionally, the  word  ‘teaching’  denoted a teacher-centred activity in  which  teacher imparted knowledge and students passively received it. Knowledge is the sum total of facts, truths, laws, principles, and ideas that man has produced.

In modern era teaching is viewed in a broader perspective. Teaching is viewed as a comprehensive process, and there has been a tremendous change in the way  of understanding teaching and a teacher’s roles. Teaching is conceptualized as an active interactive process that goes on between the  consciously designed environment and  the student, Similarly language learning is not just acquisition of linguistic knowledge but application of it in real life situations. In this perspective, success of language learning depends  on how well one is able to use the language to meet the demands of the situation in academic and professional settings.

At college entry level most of the students have a fair knowledge of grammar and general principles but lack the ability to put them to effective use. They can reproduce mainly by rote but are inefficient in production. So the need of the hour of this stage is mastery of language learning. This way the grammatical and functional dimensions of language can be integrated to the maximum benefit of the learner.

The learner’s grammatical knowledge should be viewed as an essential resource for communication which can be activated through appropriate class room inventions. Such an approach involves learners in comprehending, producing and interacting in language. They are forced to manipulate their grammatical knowledge to communicate meaningfully.

When communication become the focus of class room activity, other integral components of communication like discourse patterns and psycho-social aspects are naturally highlighted. The learners are forced to acknowledge the interplay of these dimensions in language use and act accordingly. In short, it is a practice session for real life communication.

Learner Oriented Activities

Successful fulfillment of this objective will depend on our choice of class room activities or tasks. We need tasks that stimulate and promote communication. The content as well as process should be means that enhance interaction. But no  one strategy can be singled out as a panacea for all learning situations nor can it provide optimum learning to all learners. The best way is to mix and match the activities to suit the needs of different types of learners and situations.

In many language classrooms, lectures are making space for learner oriented activities like role play, simulation, skit presentation, book review, news reading, quizzes, group discussion and language games. Such activities encourage learners to explore authentic texts for gathering information and ideas. They give learners the chance to utilize their cognitive learning in an activity that would help them develop effective communication skills. These activities stimulate a lot of interaction among learners, thereby providing a stage for practicing communication.

Group Tasks

Apart from this, small group tasks encourage planning, team work and cooperation among learners which are integral to harmony in life. There is also scope to develop one’s creativity and leadership potential. It gives introverts a chance to step into the arena in a supportive role and gain confidence slowly. It helps in breaking the ice in a new class and serves as a good warm up activity throughout. The element of fun and competition involved in the conduct of these activities make them enjoyable experiences. But it is in the hands of the teacher to make them enjoyable learning experiences.

Teacher’s Role

As instruction is the complex process by which learners are provided with a deliberately designed environment to interact with, keeping in focus pre-specified objective of bringing about specific desirable changes. Whether instruction  goes  in  a  classroom,  laboratory,  outdoors or  library, this environment is specifically designed by  a  teacher so that students interact with  certain specific environmental stimuli, like  natural  components (outdoor),  information from  books, certain equipment (laboratory) etc. Learning is directed in pre-determined directions to achieve certain pre-specific goals.

Teachers have to have a clear view of the expected outcome in cognitive as well as co-native and psycho-motor domains of learning outcome. They should have a comprehensive picture of the values communicated and the facets of language usage and skills to be practiced through each activity. At the end of these sessions, it is the responsibility of the teacher to assess the extent to which this has been achieved. Feed back  session can be the forum for highlighting learner strengths and discussing ways to minimize the lapses in use and usage. Based on the findings, the activities have to be refined and modified. Class room activities are accountable to objectives and should address the underlying linguistic skills the learners need  to communicate well in their chosen field of study or work. It needs a lot of in-depth understanding and critical thinking on the part of the educator to tie the experiences of these ‘games’ with instructional objectives.

Fluency and Accuracy

This does not mean that the language classes have to be dominated by these activities alone. Grammatical consciousness raising activities, individual exercises and assignments focusing on usage are indispensable because they help us build on the learner’s database and balance accuracy and fluency in language use. These grammar focused activities can be followed by language games which enables learners to put these items to use.

Effective language teaching is a selective combination and application of different strategies. Diversified teaching strategies capture the attention of learners and the heightened interest provides the best avenue for learning. Those who have been exposed at school to a wide spectrum of language activities encompassing the grammatical and functional dimensions of  language get a head start over others at college. But all learners can be helped if college teachers present a variety of stimuli which will motivate learners to practice the fundamental skills of communication. A rigid syllabus and administrative hurdles can restrict the freedom of teachers to organizing unconventional activities in class rooms. In such cases at least a proportion of time should be judiciously spent on such activities that induce learners to communicate. It is good starting point for acquiring proficiency in language.

“Kahlil Gibran has attempted  a unique and daring experiment-It is as though contemporary of Jesus sat down at a belated hour, to write another and different gospel”  John Keynes Holmes

Those were the majestic words for Kahlil Gibran, the poet, philosopher and painter of Lebanon, whose  death anniversary fell on 10^th April 2012. Khalil Gibran died on April 10, 1931 in New York City. The cause of death was determined to be cirrhosis of the liver and tuberculosis. Before his death, Gibran expressed the wish to be buried in Lebanon. This wish was fulfilled in 1932, when Mary Haskell and his sister Mariana purchased the Mar Sarkis Monastery in Lebanon, which has since become the Gibran Museum.

Born on 6^th January 1883, Kahlil Gibran,( Variations on the spelling of this Arabic name include Jubrãn, Gubran, Jibran, Kahlil and Kalil. It is written جبران خليل جبران from right to left), in his sadly brief but eventful life of 48 summers, carved out for himself niche in the hall of immortals and earned an undying name as a poet and painter of no mean order.

Crushed under the iron heel of Turkey imperialism, the  Arabic renaissance made a great get-away in the latter half of the nineteenth century and came into its own; and Kahlil Gibran’s became the surging voice of the inner urge and genius of the Arabic people and their passion for freedom.

Born of Meronite Christian parents in the little mountain village of Bsherri in Lebanon, Gibran, like most great men, owed much to his mother Kamila Rahmi sang to him, in her wonderful voice, the softly plaintive and haunting songs of the desert and mountain and as he grew up, she regaled him with the tales of Haroun-al-Raschid and of the Arab wonderland. When Gibran was six years old, his understanding mother presented him with a book of reproductions of Leonardo. They kindled in him a deep love for art; and soon, he was drawing pictures with coloured pencils and paints with a passion rare for a young boy of his age.

Inheriting from his mother a linguistic fluency, Gibran when still young, attained a commendable command of Arabic, French and English languages. Young Gibran studied at the Madrasat  Al-Hikmat at Beirut and concluded his studies in 1901 with high honours .He also studied  a variety of subjects like music, international law and medicine, although they were outside the regular curriculum. During this period Gibran did much writing in Arabic and also edited a literary and philosophical magazine called Al-Hakikat ( The Truth ).

Merging Eastern and Western philosophies, Gibran was influenced by his Lebanese childhood, his adopted America, and the time he spent studying art with  Auguste Rodin in Paris. Read how he lost his first name, made his first fame, and more in a short biography. Shorter still, but no less illustrative of the artist is this quote

“In one drop of water are found all the secrets of all the oceans; in one aspect of You are found all the aspects of existence.”

From 1901 to 1903 and again from 1908 to 1910 Gibran studied painting in Paris. His paintings were exhibited in the Paris Salon, and, later, several exhibitions of his works were held in New York, where he had settled down in 1910.He made portraits of many celebrities like Rodin, Maurice Maeterlinck, W.B. Yeats, Sarah Bernhardt and John Masefield.

Gibran’s paintings represented the mystic symbolism of the East but, all the same , the qualities of the East and West were blended in him with a singular felicity of expression. Gibran himself said that “Art is a step from nature to the infinite” and his works symbolised this “step” remarkably well.

Gibran’s undying fame, however, rests as a great poet, thinker and mystic writer. He believed in the essential divinity of human being and the continuity of life. Most of his writings were done originally in Arabic and later translated into English either by himself or by others. Among his outstanding works are “The Prophet” and “ Jesus, the Son of Mani”, to select only a couple of them.

Humanity is the spirit of the Supreme Being on earth, and humanity is standing amidst unseen ruins, hiding its nakedness behind tattered rags, shedding tears upon hollow cheeks, calling for its children in pitiful voice. But the children are busy singing the anthem; they are busy sharpening the swords and can not hear the cries of their mothers.”  Kahlil Gibran.

Lebanon had been convulsed by religious violence only twenty years before his birth, but for Gibran the underlying unity beneath the various forms of religion overruled all differences. As a student he even drew up plans for a opera house to be built in Beirut with two domes symbolizing the reconciliation of Christianity and Islam. The dream eventually bore fruit, albeit only on paper, in Al-Mustafa, “the chosen and the beloved”, who is the main character in his best known work. The Prophet is said to be the second bestselling book in the United States, after the Bible.

Gibran first wrote “The Prophet” in Arabic at the age of fifteen and again re-wrote and published it in English in 1923. The book is illustrated with twelve symbolic drawings done by Gibran himself. In the 28^th chapters of the book the Prophet Al-Mustafa gives a series of replies to the seekers who question him on the conduct of life and the mystery of death. An American review of this book said “Truth is here: truth expressed with all the music and beauty and idealism of a Syrian……The 28 chapters in the book form a little bible, to be read and loved by those at all ready for the truth.” The London Times said “this book combines all that is best in Christian and Buddhist thought.”

His other great work, “ Jesus, the Son of Man” was dictated by Gibran to Barbara Young. His gifted biographer and friend, over a period of 18 months. It appeared as though Gibran was lost in a spiritual frenzy as he dictated the story of Jesus. Speaking of those days Barbara Young observes, “a radiance would shine upon his countenance…He was transfigured. Each of the seventy characters came alive in that place….Sometimes a few lines, a Light, tenuous but clearly visible, showed above and about him as he walked”.

Gibran’s influence on popular culture in the twentieth century cannot be overestimated. When the American president John F. Kennedy in his Inaugural Speech famously cautioned his fellow countrymen

“Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country.”

He was quoting from The New Frontier which Gibran had written thirty six years earlier:

“Are you a politician asking what your country can do for you or a zealous one asking what you can do for your country?”

Merging Eastern and Western philosophies, Gibran was influenced by his Lebanese childhood, his adopted America, and the time he spent studying art with Augusta Rodin in Paris. Read how he lost his first name, made his first fame, and more in a short biography. Shorter still, but no less illustrative of the artist is this quote

“In one drop of water are found all the secrets of all the oceans; in one aspect of You are found all the aspects of existence.”

I am alive like you, and now I stand beside you.
Close your eyes and look around, you will see me in front of you.

(Gibran’s epitaph)

Dr. V.K. Maheshwari, Former Principal

K.L.D.A.V(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

By plucking her petals, you do not gather the beauty of the flower.

Rabindranath Tagore

Before we discuss the psychology of aesthetics, it is necessary to make few things clear about the concept of beauty.

The first and foremost is to define the concept of beauty. From the lay-man point of view ,beauty is the effect one  feel after receiving or perceiving any stimulus, concrete or abstract. This effect can be pleasing or repulsive.

Actually the above point refers only about the effect of beauty, but” what” aspect of the basic question is still unanswered. Actually beauty is nothing but an equilibrium among the various inherent  components in anything, may it be music. Painting, literary work , a thought in philosophy or anything in nature including biological structure or social and cultural impact factors.

Another problem area is determining the nature of beauty, is it subjective or object oriented/ objective?.

The supporters of subjective nature give some significant arguments like,” for the mother, her child is the  most beautiful child” or  “ why we feel attracted towards one person in one situation and for the same person we may feel the opposite in different situation”

The supporters of the object oriented view argue like, “The sculptures of Ajanta cave , paintings of Leonardo ,  classical music, or poetry of Rabindra Nath Tagore are beautiful ,if you fail to appreciate them , it is due to your ignorance . So the fault lies in you not in the object.

Both types of arguments carry weight. So it can be concluded that the nature of beauty is both subjective as well as object- centred/ objective.

There can be few topics more certain to lead to furious discussion than those related to aesthetics; there can be few topics within the realm of aesthetics more certain to arouse normally peaceful artists, philosophers, and aestheticians to a pitch of uncontrolled imagination than that which has given this article its title. The idea that objects of beauty, as well their creation and appreciation, are subject to scientific scrutiny appears abhorrent to most people, even as the idea that physicist might study and analyse the colours of rainbow with his objective methods was abhorrent to their grand- parents. There appears to exist a fear that clumsy handling might crush the butterfly wings; an idea that analysis may destroy what is intending to study.

Associated with this fear is perhaps another. Most people hold views regarding aesthetics which they are extremely unwilling to give up, although these views are not based on any objective facts. Indeed the very idea that one’s views ought to be related to factual evidence is usually dismissed, and it is asserted that subjectivity reigns supreme in this field. This, of course, is a tenable view; t is contradicted, however, by the well known tendency of most people to argue about their aesthetic views, often with great acerbity, always with great tenacity, never with that humility witch the hypothesis of complete subjectivity should engender in them. If aesthetics judgements are completely subjective, there would appear as little point in argument as in scientific experiment; if the one is permissible, so surely is the other. Perhaps the objection to scientific investigation is in part due to a fear that facts may be more potent than arguments in forcing one to give up a cherished position, and to acknowledge certain objective factors which one would prefer to overlook.

However that may be, there can be little doubt about the hostile reaction which psychology  has experienced on  all sides when it attempted to introduce scientific method  into the study of aesthetics. A good deal of this hostility is probably based on misunderstanding.

How, then, does the psychology start? He notices that certain type of judgements are made frequently of certain objects; these judgements are phrased in terms of ‘beautiful’ and ‘ugly, or some synonymous terms, and apply to various combinations of colours and shapes, as in visual arts; words, as in poetry; or sounds, as in music. The essential datum, with which he deals, therefore, is a relation-a relation between a stimulus (pictures, poems, piece of music) and a person who reacts to this stimulus in certain conventional ways. Usually the response is a verbal one, but it is possible, and has been found useful in certain situations, to record physiological reactions indicative of emotion, such as heart-beat, skin temperature, or the electric conductivity of the skin.

In analysing this relation, the psychologist encounters a twofold problem. In the first place, he must ask  himself: Just what is the physical properties of the stimulus which causes a favourable reaction as opposed to an unfavourable reaction  in the majority of the subjects with whom he is working? In the second place, he must ask himself: Just what is the reason why one person reacts favourably to a given stimulus, while another person reacts unfavourably? Possible answer to the first question might be in terms of certain ‘laws of composition’. Answer to the second question might be in terms of temperamental traits or types; thus it might be argued that introverts prefer classical, extrovert romantic music.

Inevitably, the psychologist will start his work by experimenting with the simplest possible stimuli- simple colours and colour combinations, simple proportions of lines and so forth. In doing this he is following the usual path of scientific progress from the simple to the complex is here that he frequently encounters the first serious objection on the part of the philosophers and aestheticians, who claim that judgement regarding the relative beauty of simple colours or lines are not in any way related  to judgements  of more complex  stimuli, and the consequently rules and laws derived from simple stimuli can have no relevance to what are considered ’real’ works of art. No proof is offered for the rejection of evidence, other than the subjective feeling of the critic that attempt to argue that these judgements are ‘qualitatively’ different.

How does the psychologist design his experiment? Usually he will provide a series of stimuli whose physical properties are known, and ask his subjects to rank these in order of aesthetic merit i.e. from best liked to least liked. Alternatively he may offer his subjects two stimuli at a time, with the request to say which of the two is more pleasing aesthetically; .  All possible combination of stimuli are shown in this manner. Either procedure will result in an average order of preference, and experience has shown that this order will be pretty much the same regardless of the exact method used for deriving it. From this average order of ‘aesthetic’ merit, certain deduction may be made regarding the physical properties associated with high ranking and low ranking objects respectively.

It is here that another objection will often be made. Psychologists, it will be said, are treating the perception of ‘beauty’ as it were essentially similar to some ‘objective’ property like size or shape. But this can hardly be permissible; surely ‘ beauty ‘ is not a property belonging to an object in the same way that one might say  the colour green or the triangular shape belonged to the object. Beauty in other words, is essentially subjective; colour shape and other properties of a stimulus are objective. How can one reasonably use methods appropriate to the study of one type of stimuli in the study of other, different types?

This objection is based on an essential fallacy, a fallacy whose  hoary age does not prevent it from coming up again and again in modern discussion. An object does not ‘ contain’ the colour green in any meaningful sense of the term; it reflects light of a certain wavelength which some people experience as ‘green’ , others, who happen to be colour blind, as ‘grey’. Similarly, an object does not ‘contain’ beauty in any meaningful sense of the term; it reflects light in certain combinations of wavelengths which some people experience as ‘beautiful. Others as ‘ugly’ or ‘indifferent’.

Now it is necessary to inquire into the precise meaning of those terms, ‘objective’ and ‘subjective’, which are so often used to mark the distinction between properties which are supposed to be capable of being investigated by scientific techniques- such as colour and shape- and others which are not-such as beauty. ‘Objective’ is usually taken as  synonymous with ‘real’ , ‘subjective’ with ‘unreal’.But we have shown that to call a stimulus ‘green’ is far from being an ‘ objective’ description; all that we can say objectively is that the stimulus object reflects light-waves of a certain periodicity. The experience ‘green’ is subjective, i.e. inherent in the observer rather than a characteristic of the stimulus. If it is nevertheless permissible to try to link up the subjective experience and the objective stimulus in the case of colour or form perception, it is difficult to see why it should not be permissible to do the same in the case of our perception of ‘beauty’.

Now let us consider the factors and characteristics, seems to influences the determination of aesthetic judgement.

First of all, let us note that with respect to colour combination, a certain marked degree of agreement is seen which can be explained on the basis of Gestalt school of psychology. The laws of perception seems to act as  a significant force in determining the variation in judgement. Factor relates to the position of the two component colours on the colour circle. The closer together the two colours are on the circle, the lower will be the aesthetic ranking of the combination; the further apart they are, the higher will be the ranking of the combination. Best liked of all are pairs of complementary colours, i.e. colours exactly opposite each other on the colour circle. It is found that those to prove to be good judges on one test involving colour combinations also turn out to be good judges on other tests involving colour combinations and vice-versa.

In the second place, it has been found that people who show good taste in their judgements of simple colours and of colour combinations also do well on the achromatic test of composition. This finding must certainly be somewhat unexpected to the subjectivist; it is accountable in terms of the hypothesis that there exist some properties of the central nervous system which determines aesthetic judgements, a property which is biologically derived, and which covers the whole field of visual art .One deduction, might be that this ability should be very strongly determined by heredity; there is already some evidence in support of this view, but it would require experiments with identical and fraternal twins to make the proof conclusive. Similarly few thinkers believe that this agreement may be due entirely to intelligence; the more intelligent may also be more ‘artistic’, and perhaps the more knowledgeable regarding aesthetic values. This hypothesis falls to the ground because intelligence correlates only to a very slight extent with ‘good taste’; certainly the correlation is much too low to account for the findings.

A more reasonable influencing factor might be one which referred the observed correlations to cultural factors ; the argument might run something  like this. A person who is knowledgeable with respect to current views about the aesthetic value of certain painting would also be knowledgeable with respect to current views about the aesthetic value of different types of carpets, or statues, or any other object. Thus the test might merely measure ‘cultural knowledge’ rather than something more fundamental. This point should not be stretched too far; it is certainly is not denied that cultural influences have very great importance indeed.

Studies have shown convincingly that aesthetic preferences are also related to personality temperaments; introvert tends to prefer the older, while extroverts prefers the more modern works.

One last point should be considered. In addition to general ‘good taste’ and style preferences, aesthetic judgements are often determined by highly individualistic and idiosyncratic factors.  A man may like blue because his girl always wears blue or he may show an inordinate preference  for paintings of sea beaches, because these pictures reminds him of sunny summer holidays on the sandy beaches of Goa. These are extraneous factors which may be of interest in themselves, but which do not affect the determination of our average order; being specific to one individual, they tend to cancel out over large numbers. Essentially, this type of preference determinant is non-aesthetic in nature, being mainly based on associations with particular events which have  brought  happiness or pain to the individual concerned.

Dr. V.K. Maheshwari, Former Principal

K.L.D.A.V(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

I am a deeply religious nonbeliever – this is a somewhat new kind of religion.
My religion consists of a humble admiration of the illimitable superior spirit who reveals himself in the slight details we are able to perceive with our frail and feeble mind.
It was the experience of mystery – even if mixed with fear – that engendered religion.
Albert Einstein

If we define religion as the worship of supernatural forces, we must observe at the onset that some peoples have apparently no religion at all. But such cases are exceptional, and the old belief that religion is universal is substantially correct. To the philosopher this is one of the outstanding facts of history and psychology; he is not content to know that all religions contain much nonsense, but rather he is fascinated by the problem of the antiquity and persistence of belief. What are the sources of the indestructible piety of mankind?

Fear was the first mother of gods. Fear, above all, of death. Primitive life was beset with a thousand dangers , and seldom ended with natural decay; long before old age could come, violence or some strange disease carried off the great majority of men. Hence early man did not believe that death was ever natural; he attributed it to the operation of supernatural agencies. As for example in the mythology of the natives of New Britain death came to men by an error of the gods. The good god Kambinana told his foolish brother  Korvouva, “Go down to men and tell them to cast their skins; so shall they avoid death. But tell the serpents that they henceforth die.” Korvouva mixed the messages ; he delivered the secret of immortality to the snakes, and the doom of death to men. Many tribes thought that death was due to the shrinkage of the skin, and that man would be immortal if only he could mould.

Fear of death, wonder at the causes of chance events or unintelligible happenings, hope for divine aid and gratitude for good fortune, cooperated to generate religious faith. Wonder and mystery adhered particularly to sex and dreams, and the mysterious influence of heavenly bodies upon the earth and man. Primitive man marvelled at the phantoms that he saw in sleep, and was struck with terror when he beheld, in his dreams, the figures of those whom he knew to be dead. He buried his dead in the earth to prevent their return; he buried victuals and goods with the corpse lest it should come back to curse him; sometimes he left to the dead the house in which death had come, while he himself moved on to another shelter; in some places he carried the body out of the house not through a door but through a hole in the wall, and bore it rapidly three times around the dwelling so that the spirit might forget the entrance and never haunt  the home (S&K,859;Lippert,115).

Such experiences convinced early man that every living thing had a soul, or secret life, within it , which could be separated from the body in illness, sleep or death. ‘Let no one wake a man brusquely, “said one of the Upanishads of ancient India ,” For it is a matter difficult of cure if the soul finds not its way back to him”(Brihadaranyaka Upanished,4.,3;.). Not man alone but all things had souls; the external world was not insensitive or dead, it was intensely alive; if this were not so, thought primitive philosophy, nature would be full of inexplicable occurrences, like the motion of the sun, or the death dealing lightening, or the whispering of the trees. The personal way of conceiving objects and events preceded the impersonal or abstract; religion preceded philosophy. Such animism is the poetry of religion, and the religion of poetry. We may see it at its lowest in the wonder- struck eyes of a dog that watches a paper blown before him by the wind, and perhaps believes that a spirit moves the paper from within; and we find the same feeling at the highest in the language of a poet. To the primitive mind-and the poet in all ages- mountains, rivers, rocks, trees, stars, sun, moon and sky are sacra mentally holy things, because they are the outward and visible signs of inward and invisible souls. There is wisdom as well as beauty in this animism; It is good and nourishing to treat all things as alive.,

Since all things have souls, or contain hidden gods, the objects of religious worship are numberless. They fall into six classes

1. Celestial

2. Terrestrial

3. Sexual

4. Animal

5. Human

6. Divine

Of course we shall never know which of our universe of objects was worshipped first.

Most human gods, however, seem to have been in the beginning merely idealized dead men. The appearance of the dead in dreams was enough to establish the worship of the dead, for worship, if not the child, is at least the brother, of fear. Men who had been powerful during life, and therefore had been feared, were especially likely to be worshiped after their death. Among several primitive peoples the word for god actually meant “ a dead man “; even today the English word SPIRIT and the German word GEIST mean both ghost and soul. The Greeks, the Hindus, invoked their dead precisely as the Christians were to invoke the saints. So strong was the belief-first generated in dreams- in the continued life of the dead, the primitive men sometimes sent message to them in the most literal way; in one tribe of the chief, to convey such a letter, recited it verbally to a slave, and then cut off his head for special delivery; if the chief forget something he sent another decapitated slave as a postscript.

Gradually the cult of the ghost became the worship of ancestors. All the dead were feared, and had to be propitiated, lest they should curse and blight the lives of the living. The ancestor worship was so well adapted to promote social authority and continuity, conservatism and order, that is soon spread to every region of the earth. The institution held the family powerfully together despite the hostility of successive generations, and provided an invisible structure for many early societies. And just as compulsion grew into conscience, so fear graduated into love; the ritual of ancestor-worship, probably generated by terror, later aroused the sentiment of awe, and finally developed piety and devotion It is the tendency of gods to begin as ogres and to end as loving fathers; the idol passes into an ideal as the growing security, peacefulness and moral sense of the worshipers pacify and transform the features of their once ferocious deities. The slow progress of civilization is reflected in the tardy amiability of the gods.

Such experiences convinced early man that every living thing had a soul, or secret life, within it , which could be separated from the body in illness, sleep or death. ‘Let no one wake a man brusquely, “said one of the Upanishads of ancient India ,” For it is a matter difficult of cure if the soul finds not its way back to him”(Brihadaranyaka Upanished,4.,3;.). Not human alone but all things had souls; the external world was not insensitive or dead, it was intensely alive; if this were not so, thought primitive philosophy, nature would be full of inexplicable occurrences, like the motion of the sun, or the death dealing lightening, or the whispering of the trees. The personal way of conceiving objects and events preceded the impersonal or abstract; religion preceded philosophy. Such animism is the poetry of religion, and the religion of poetry. We may see it at its lowest in the wonder- struck eyes of a dog that watches a paper blown before him by the wind, and perhaps believes that a spirit moves the paper from within; and we find the same feeling at the highest in the language of a poet. To the primitive mind-and the poet in all ages- mountains, rivers, rocks, trees, stars, sun, moon and sky are sacra mentally holy things, because they are the outward and visible signs of inward and invisible souls. There is wisdom as well as beauty in this animism; It is good and nourishing to treat all things as alive.,

The idea of human god was a late step in a long development; it was slowly differentiated through many stages, out of conception of an ocean or multitude of spirits and ghosts surrounding the inhabiting everything. From the fear and worship of vague and formless spirits men seem to have passed to adoration of celestial, vegetative and sexual powers, than to reverence for animals, and worship of ancestors. The notion of God as Father was probably derived from ancestor worship; it meant originally that men had been physically begotten by the gods. In primitive theology there is no sharp or generic distinction between gods and men; to the early Greeks and Hindus, for example their gods were ancestors, and their ancestors were gods. A further development came when, out of the medley of ancestors, certain men and women who had been especially distinguished were singled out for clearer deification; so the greater kings became gods, sometimes even before their death. But with this development we reach the historic civilizations.

To quote Powys,John Cowper,in his book ,” The meaning of culture. Nature begins to present herself as a vast congeries of separate living entities, some visible, some invisible, but all possessed of mind- stuff, all possessed of matter-stuff, and all blending mind and matter together in the basic mystery of being….The world is full of gods! From every planet and from every stone there emanates a presence that disturbs us with a sense of multitudinousness of god-like powers, strong and feeble, great and little, moving between heaven and earth upon their secret purposes”.

Dr. V.K. Maheshwari, Former Principal

K.L.D.A.V(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

It is said that Lie-detector tests when conducted by competent and experienced operators, are of considerable practical utility. I n the first place, with the aid of lie-detector, it is possible to detect deception with much greater accuracy than is otherwise attainable. Secondly, the instrument, the tests, and the accompanying procedure have a decided psychological effect in inducing admissions and confessions from guilty individuals.

Popularly the lie-detector is often thought of as an instrument which rings a bell or flashes a light whenever a lie is told by the person who is undergoing investigation. Unfortunately  nothing as certain and dramatic as this is available Lie detection depends on deduction, on circumstantial evidence, and on the fitting together of a large number of disparate facts. It obtains its most dependable information from a continuous and simultaneous recording of changes in blood pressure, pulse, and respiration occurring during the interrogation of the suspect. These recordings are made on an instrument or polygraph, which provides a progressive record of these various physiological responses. The polygraph itself essentially consists of a long roll of paper which is pulled across a surface at a uniform speed and on which a number of recording pens leave a permanent record of their movements. The movement of the recording pens in turn is governed by various instruments attached to the person of the subject who is being investigated. The instruments are connected to the recording pens either electronically or mechanically.

Typical of the kind of instrument used is so called pneumograph, which is used for recording breathing. The pneumograph tube, which is tied round the subject’s chest, consist of a closely wound spring covered with a thin rubber tubing; one end of the tube is sealed, while the other end is connected to the polygraphitself by means of a small rubber tube. During the test the circumference of the subjects chest increases as he breathes in and decreases as he breaths out. With each inspiration, therefore, the pneumograph tube stretches, and with each exhalation it contacts The movement of the tube produces pressure changes inside it , and these are transmitted to the polygraph and recorded there.

The theoretical rationale behind the lie detection is based on a phenomenon of psychosomatic disorders. What is meant by this somewhat ill-conceived phrase is simply that certain disorders of the body, or soma, may be caused by psychological events, such as strong emotions, and that the cure for the somatic disorder may thus be achieved by first accomplishing a psychological purge. This insistence on the close relationship between body and mind, and the interplay between the two is regarded as a modern trend , and Freud and psycho-analysis  generally are often credited with the discovery of what many people have considered a vital new truth in medicine.

Let us consider what precisely the physiological reactions are which denotes the presence of an emotion. Actually expression of emotions provide base to the lie detection. Largely these emotions can be identified because they are transmitted by a special part of the nervous system .Speaking quite broadly; we may say that human beings seem to have two nervous systems. One the central nervous system is responsible for the transmission of impulses to the skeletal musculature, which is responsible for carrying out voluntary movements.

There is, however, another system, relatively independent of the central nervous system. This has been called the autonomic or vegetative nervous system and dealt essentially with certain vital but unconscious  activities. Thus we breath our heart beats, digestion take place, hormones are pouring into our blood-stream, the amount of blood passing through different parts of the body is finely regulated in response to temperature. Our eye pupil dilateates and contracts in response to differences in brightness- all without any kind of conscious adjustment. It is these autonomic, or vegetative, responses which are so closely related to emotions. Some of the major autonomic changes accompanying emotion are familiar to everyone and do not require instrumentation for their detection, These changes include flushing of the face , excessive sweating , increase in heart rate, the drying out of the mouth, many vague visceral sensations ,and so forth. Under laboratory conditions many other more subtle  physiological changes can be observed, such as a rise in blood pressure , increased oxygen consumption , increase in the number of R.B.C and platelets in the circulating blood, liberation of glucose in the blood stream and many hundreds of others which could be mentioned.

Most of these changes appear to have an adaptive purpose; the major conditions, like fear and anger are usually the precursors of violent activity, which might be fight or flight. For both a powerful supply of blood is needed. Consequently, the heart beats faster; blood is withdran from the stomach, thus stopping digestion. It is amazing to observe the wonderful adaptability shown by our bodies in responding to urgent situations of this kind, an adaptability which owes nothing  to conscious thought and everything to an inherited response pattern developed in millions of years of evolution.

This is a rough picture of the kind of procedure employed in lie –detector test and the criteria used for establishing the presence or absence of emotions accompanying a reply. How valid is the lie-detector test, and how much reliance can be placed on it ? These are difficult questions, and before answering them we must consider certain factors which affect the interpretation of scores.  One of the main difficulties in tests of this kind is the nervousness shown by many a truthful and innocent person under the conditions of police interrogation. Such nervousness is usually manifested in the record by the general erratic character of the tracings, and by large the failure of the larger reactions to be related specifically to the pertinent questions; thus , the psychological disturbances associated with nervousness appear on the lie detector record without any consistent relationship to any particular question or questions.

The lie-detector test efficacy at the present time is reasonably well known and its value in producing true confessions is without doubt. It does not in anyway partake of ‘third degree’ methods;it does not cause physical pain to the accused; and it does not, when it fails, fail by implecating the innocent person Its failure rather is a failure to detect the person who has lied.Lastly in many cases it serves as a shield to the innocent person. Who without fault of his ownis enmeshed in a mass of circumstantial evidence, but the truth of whose protestations of innocence is verified by the lie- detector .Similarly the cases where the evidence on either side is  unconvincing  and incapable of circumstantial corroboration,(Sexual crimes often fall into this categort, as in most cases none but the two persons involved are present, and physical evidence as to precisely what happened is rarely forthcoming) . In those circumstances, where any decision reached on the basis of available evidence  would be little more than guess-work there is little doubt  that the utilization oflie-detector test results  would substantially  increase the accuracy of the final decision.

Certain rules must be followed in interpreting these reactions, however ,the main rule being that in order to be considered as evidence of lying, a physiological response to a relevant question must be quite different to the physiological response to an irrelevant question. Many people, although innocent of the crime under investigation, have a bad conscience in general, which makes them nervous and jittery altogether, or are emotionally over-reactive. Such people show considerable physiological reactivity, even after irrelevant questions, and might be considered to be lying if this fact were not taken into account. The answer pattern on the irrelevant question provides us for each subject with a base line indicative of his response  pattern when he is speaking the truth; lying can be diagnosed only when marked difference from the normal response pattern are apparent in connexion with relevant questions.

Another safeguard which should always be employed is that no single response  is taken as evidence of lying. T he same question or a similar one, should always be asked several times, and only if there is considerable consistency in the subject’s response pattern indicating his guilt should this be regarded as suggestive. This is a very important safeguard indeed. Accidental factors, such as a sudden cramp, a sneeze, or a sudden loud noise, may produce effects indistinguishable from the emotional concomitants of lying, and these irrelevant factors can only be excluded by repeating the whole procedure several times.

In certain circumstances a rather different form of questioning  can be used , which has great advantages. This has been called the ‘ peak of tension’, or ‘guilty knowledge’ technique, and is dependent for its usefulness on the fact that a guilty person may possess knowledge which no innocent person would have. Any question regarding this knowledge, or any reference to it , would produce emotional reactions in the guilty person which would not be present in an innocent one.

In some cases the type of physiological reaction used was not one of those mentioned so far, but the so- called PSYCHOGALVANIC reflex. This is a rather mysterious phenomenon involving the measurement of the resistance of the skin to the passage of an electric current. Electrodes are fixed to the palm and the back of the hand, and a current so slight as to be quite imperceptibles then set up. The resistance offered by the hand to the passage of this current  is measured, and it has been universally found that any sudden shock or emotion produces a characteristic fall in this resistance. This fall occurs after a latency period of about a second or so after the stimulus has been applied and  appears to be proportional, roughly , to the amount of disturbance caused. There is no universally accepted explanation of this phenomenon, although there is some reason to believe that it is connected with the activity of the sweat glands of the hand. Emotion is known to produce activity in these sweat-glands, and sweat, being salty, is good conductor of electricity. However this is hardly the whole explanation and other possibilities have still to be considered. Fortunately, the usefulness of this method of registering emotion does not depend  entirely on a knowledge of the mechanisms which produce it and, in certain circumstances , the psycho galvanic  reflex is a better indicator of deception than any of those referred previously.

Other factors are more difficult to deal with Mental deficiency, for instance, make a subject almost useless for a lie-detector test. A very stupid person, who may not be able to distinguish between truth and falsehood or understand the social obligation of telling the truth, or who has no fear of detection, will not give useful results which can be interoperated in any way. Much the same is true  for young children, who are not fit subjects for lie-detector tests. Obviously innocent persons frequently give records so abnormal and erratic that no interpretation is possible.

Much greater difficulties are caused by certain people who are relatively unresponsive  to the conditions of testing. A person who refuses to believe in the efficacy of the test and who therefore  is not worried at all about giving himself away, will tend to show less emotion when telling a lie and therefore produce less easily interpretable records on the polygraph. Some people show a quite extreme absence of emotion, and such people, while actually guilty, might easily be pronounced innocent in terms of their reaction in the lie-detection test. Again some people are able to control their mental associations and processes sufficiently to avoid give-away responses. Fortunately  only few people seem to be able to control their minds to the extent required in order to ‘ beat the machine ‘ but it should be remembered that some people do possess this ability , and that their number seems to be particularly large among hardened criminals .

Among persons knowing the psychological basis of the lie detector, other tricks may sometimes be employed to make detection impossible. It will be remembered that lie detection depends very much on a comparison between items which are relevant and items which are irrelevant. If the subject is capable of causing physiological reactions to irrelevant items , then the comparison  will become useless and the record will not be capable of revealing damaging information. Causing physiological responses to innocent items may be done in various ways. For example a person stepping on his left foot with the heel of his shoe, resulting pain producing a reaction sufficiently like those  of lying to make the record unusable. Other people have been known to indulge in sexual fantasies when answering innocent questions, thus producing physiological responses to the fantasies which the investigator would attribute to the next question. It is not categorically  possible to say that such tricks may not work occasionally , but in most cases the experienced examiner will notice what the accused person is doing and will draw his own conclusions.

What are the main changes which are indicative of deception ? The most reliable index is  a simultaneous occurrence of a suppression in respiration and an increase in blood pressure immediately after the subject answer. However, even if only one of these two  reactions occurs it is a fairly safe guide to the examiner. Occasionally, deception may be indicated by a decrease in blood pressure, occurring several seconds after the subject has made his untruthful reply to the question. Heavier breathing 15 to 20 seconds after a reply to a relevant question has been given is also frequently indicative of lying; it is the physiological concomitant of a feeling of relief that this dangerous point has been passed with apparent safety, and it may  also occur at the end of the questioning period when the subject is told that he will not be asked any more questions. A last deception criterion is a slowing up of a subject’s pulse-beat immediately after his reply to a question.

In addition, the lie-detection techniques at present in use have not been adequately standardized with respect to instrumentation, the manner in which a test should be conducted, the interpretation of recordings, or the training of competent examiners. In such circumstances, incompetent or dishonest persons might represent themselves as ‘lie-detector experts’ and give inaccurate or perjured testimony.