Dr. V.K. Maheshwari, Ph.D

Dr. V.K. Maheshwari, Former Principal

K.L.D.A.V(P.G) College, Roorkee, India.

 

When profit motives dominate and quality of education is sacrificed or fees and other charges levied in excess of expenditure on services provided such educational ventures are generally termed as private coaching.

The impact of education is intense and pervasive on almost all human activities. In  professional and personal development of people  education and training are an essentiality for ensuring their social progress and economic growth. In economic sense, investment in education is profitable. Parents of successive generations have, therefore, been concerned about the level and quality of schooling of their children.

The private coaching institutions exploit the prevailing excessive demand for education and operate with profit motives and they charge high fees. The reasons for demand can be two-fold: the inability of the government to provide education to all those who need or desire it; and the inability of government agencies to provide education of quality perceived to be worthwhile. . It is here that coaching institutions find a fertile ground for undertaking their activities on a commercial basis.

In general, coaching institutions of education is not accepted and approved by the society, particularly by the countries like India, which have a democratic polity. But , inequality of opportunities and provisions for educational services contribute to inter-personal, inter-regional and inter-generational disparities of all forms. These perpetuate socio-economic disparities and hamper national development. Moreover, India’s long history, tradition and culture of imparting knowledge and training have put pious obligations on the duty conscious society for providing worthwhile education.

The socio-economic benefits over the entire span of working life accrue more to educated and trained persons and therefore, attempts are made by students and their parents to obtain good education at even high private costs. The demand for various types and levels of courses is much higher than available places/seats for learning in creditable institutions. To meet excess demands, coaching institutions have been established in almost every part of country, these institutions have received social support. A lack of effective mechanism to identify and discourage institutions that are offering coaching  has created an environment for mushrooming of such institutions.

The promotion of coaching institutions in education is justified on social, economic and cultural grounds. The inability of the Government, due mainly to financial constraints, to create and strengthen infrastructure for meeting the growing demand for quality education is mainly responsible for the increase of these  commercial activities in education. The  educational infrastructure- the schools, teachers and other learning support service- indicate deficiencies in facilities to attract and retain students for quality teaching and learning. A large number of students, therefore, do not enroll for basic education and those who do so, a majority of them drop out before completing even elementary education. .

IMPLICATION OF COACHING INSTITUTIONS OF EDUCATION-

In countries like, India, which continue to have unequal distribution of income and wealth for different historical reasons, such as feudal character of the society, mixed economic systems, etc. are not enough, especially for realizing the Constitutional objective of establishing a socialistic pattern of society. The economic and administrative measures are not only inadequate but also prove to be counter productive due to democratic polity and influence of better-off sections in the political process. It is, therefore, considered desirable to use the instruments of education and training to empower the socially, politically and economically weaker sections of the society.

In India, about 40 percent of the total population does not have worthwhile assets for generation of income to support their minimum requirements for maintaining a decent standard of living. They are largely wage earners in the un-organized sector. The levels of education, training and skills of the workforce determine the wages and salaries in the knowledge intensive economy. The quality education provider institutions have hardly offered any opportunities of learning to them, and this is the reason that they have lagged far behind in so far as their contribution to productivity growth and economic development is concerned The wide spread existence of such disparities across groups and regions give rise to discontent and disturb harmonious relations between different sections of the society. One of the important implications is on the fundamental right to education and also the Constitutional obligations of the state. These rights and obligations have been eclipsed under the growing influence of commercialization of education

The Constitution of India under Article 45 has stipulated for providing free education for all children up to 14 years of age by the state. The realization of this target has, however, remained elusive, mainly because of deficiency in school infrastructure and paucity of resources to cater to educational needs of eligible population groups. For historical reasons, education in India has been provided by the Government in partnership with private sector/ NGOs with a view to supplementing Government efforts for augmenting opportunities for teaching and learning. It is this approach of educational enterprise that encourages private initiatives. And, the developments in this area present a picture of light and shade. The contribution of private institutions is  commendable in expanding schooling facilities as well as in providing quality education.

School facilities are largely provided by the government- the centre, states and local bodies. A majority of students attend such schools; drop out before completing the secondary level. A major factor responsible for high dropout/failure rate is that the school environment is not conducive to teaching and learning due to such factors as teacher absenteeism, un-trained teacher, lack of classrooms and other teaching aids. As a result of these deficiencies, a large number of privately managed ‘teaching shops’ or tutorial schools have come into existence everywhere. These schools are run on commercial lines. A number of them assure high academic performance of students and adopt aggressive methods of publicity, which enable them to attract students from rich families who can pay high tuition fees and other school charges. There is, thus, rampant increase in commercial activities in education even at the level of education which the government is constitutionally obliged to provide.

Most students, especially those who attend government schools terminate their education on completion of +2 stages. A majority of them, therefore, need vocational preparedness to enter the world of work. A large proportion of students, therefore, seek support of private institutions, which provide on commercial basis vocational training and offer job-oriented courses..

A large number of students, who do not join colleges/ universities as regular students, are allowed to appear as external/ non-collegiate students, degree level examinations. Many of them attend coaching centers, which charge high fees. correspondence course institutions have taken almost similar advantage.            The Government’s failure to fulfill its mandatory obligations of making adequate provisions for quality education, commensurate with the requirements for quality teaching and learning, is chiefly responsible for encouraging commercial activities in education. As education is profitable, socially and economically, parents and their wards have little options. They are, therefore, easily exploited either by paying high un-economic costs of education or by foregoing quality education, which in any case create all forms of disparities.

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR TUITIONING IN EDUCATION-

Now, we will discuss all those aspects which affect the attitude of the society to engage Private Tuition.

Cut Throat Competition- The foremost reason of the tuition is competition, it starts since the birth of a child. The basic reason of competition is the expectations and scarcity. In the context of education, expectation of normal middle class parents starts child since the birth of child. Generally they decide the future of their child as a Doctor, Engineer, IAS, IPS, MBA, CA or a highly paid job. These expectations push a child in an endless race of competition.

In materialistic society every body wants to earn more and more. He can earn more by business or by getting good paid jobs. But every body does not have required experience or capital for the business. So, most of the persons come in the race of competition of well job. This competition starts since the birth of child. Parents get the registration in reputed school for their child before coming in this world. Now, the age of childhood reduced to two and half years only. Because parents admit him in a play or preparatory school. So that he could get the admission in a reputed school. After seeking the admission in a school, the race of good ranking starts and continue up to 12th class and so on till getting the admission in a professional course and secured a good job after passing the professional examination. Tuition is the tool of fulfilling the dreams of highly competitive society. After completing the education only few of them could get jobs through campus interview or other competition. And remaining again come in the race of competition of getting the job. Not only the children but their parents also face the financial as well as mental stress. Now days, middle class of parents taunting their sons, “without getting a good job no father will give the hand of his daughter in your hand”. In a materialistic world education is the key of success. It can make a man perfect in a particular field but could not improve his passion. It can make a profession but could not turn passion in to a profession. It can guarantee for success but not excellence. It is all due to expectations for well paid which are limited but their demand is high. Overall to face such type of competition, tuition/coaching plays a great role. At Senior Secondary level that children face the maximum stress as they have dual pressure to secure good marks at Senior Secondary level examination as well get through the admission test for professional courses for which they were taking special coaching. No doubt tuition makes it possible and skilled enough to students to get their desired results

Slow Learner Student- God is not endowed with a sharp mind to every child. Every child is having a different capacity of learning. Some student can learn mathematics very fast. Some of them easily learn literature and social studies. Few of them can learn every subject very fast. In Indian condition school teacher has his limitations, he can not pay required attention on slow learner students because of high ratio of teacher and students. It is not possible for teachers to pay attention to all students and remove their difficulties individually. If they indulge in removing the difficulties of every student the course will not be completed in time. On the vice-versa student hesitate to ask the teacher in class room because of shame or in fear of being insulted. Although students are slow learner but they  want to gain knowledge and their parents are capable to pay the private tuition fee. They take the help of private tuition. In this situation tuition is the only remedy for slow learner students. In nut shell, tuition is a boon for slow learner students.

Some student’s are careless they are not attentive in the class room. They are weak in study. They are capable to bear the private tuition fee. Because of carelessness they are not serious about their studies and  take private tuition or coaching.

Brilliant Student

Brilliant students are considered the assets or pillar of a school. . They are very attentive in the class room and home study. Their grasping power is very high.  But some time them because the liability in point of view classroom discipline. The reason of that they are not satisfied with average level class room teaching and want to get better knowledge so they prefer to get private tuition or coaching. They get sufficient knowledge as per their expectations and level from their tutor/ coaching centre. So, such students have no interest in school classes because they already have the knowledge, whatever is teaching in the classroom. They may play mischievous in class room and disturb other students. They study own and qualify every exam without taking any extra help. If they prefer tuition, they will prefer for the stake of satisfy their knowledge thirst.

Limitation of Illiterate Parents- Illiterate parents pay a great role to promote the tuition in the society. Where parents are illiterate and they are not able to teach their wards but are well aware about the importance of education.  . In this situation tuition is the boon and tutor is like an angel for them. Because after making little financial sacrifice they are able to get invaluable education by hiring a tutor for their children.

Limitation of Professional/ Educated Parents- Not only the illiterate parents is able to teach their children but highly educated parents also. Some time educated parents are able to teach their children but changed and lengthy syllabus makes it difficult for them to teach, as, they are not aware of new contents. They can teach only what they have studied in their times.

Percentage of women in business activities, professions or services is also increasing. It also helps to promote tuition. They think that it would be better to arrange private tuition and coaching for their children rather than spare time to teach their children. Because they can earn more whatever they will pay to tutor.

Rich parents do not want to take pain. They have enough money to pay the tutor of their children. Merely admitting their children in good school and arranging tuition for them. They think that they have performed their duties well and how it is up to their children how much success they will get in the examination. They put all the liabilities to be successful on their children. Responsibilities of home also restrain women from teaching their children

Generally educated parents are able to teach their children very efficiently but they are too busy in  their busy schedule. Due to the busy life schedule, the need of private tuitions is recognized as an essentiality.

Lengthy Curriculum- In some cases, course of study is too wide and lengthy that it put pressure on the mind of a student. Beside this, excessive home work, unit test, monthly tests, three terms examinations over ruled the mind of the students . Ultimately this lengthy and wide curriculum invites the private tuition.

Scarcity of Efficient Teachers- Scarcity of trained teacher is a big problem in India. Every one can see the public school like mushroom in ones neighbor. These public schools are having magnificent building, decorative class rooms, and designer uniforms of their student. But they do not  have trained and efficient teacher. Most of the schools are facing the problem of efficient and trained teacher. An efficient teacher is able to impart the knowledge to his students by using formal as well as non-formal techniques of teaching. In addition teachers generally don’t try to update their knowledge according to new situation. New concepts, new method and new technique, new knowledge in education is being introduced day by day. It is the duty of a teacher that they should update their knowledge and adopt the new techniques of teaching.. It is expected from the teacher that they should apply these modern technique. Some times teachers do not use right teaching method and strategies at right time at right place. . If teacher fails to fulfill his prime motive, students have to take extra help out of his class room in the form of tuition

Communication Gap between Teacher and Students- The basic essential of formal education is both side communication between teacher and students. When students are not able to understand what teacher wants to communicate due to any reason and they don’t give any feed back to their teacher or vice-versa teacher is not able to transfer required knowledge to them due to any reason in spite of getting the feedback from the students. This communication gap can be filled up by extra help. If this extra help is provided in exchange of financial consideration,in  the shape of tuition.

Higher Expectations of Parents -In the present social system generally parents planned their family by one or two babies. So that they can look after their family well. They ready to sacrifice all their resources on their children. When they contribute a big part of their family income on the children, their expectations become high towards the children. Keeping in view of the present social system, having the higher expectation from their children are not a sin. Because parents take the risk of having even one child so that they can look after him well and stand him to face the cut throat competition of life. Whenever they see themselves to lagging behind from their motive they take the help of tuition. Thus tuition can be considered as a tool in the hand of parents to fulfill their wishes.

Disturbed Academic Schedule- A disturbed academic schedule also promote tuition. Strike of teachers,  protest  call given by political parties, natural calamities, extreme winter and summer days are the reasons for closing down the school. To divert the teachers from their prime duty of teaching and engaging them for election duties, and in conducting different type of surveys is responsible also for a disturbed academic schedule. . Due to these short listed reasons academic sessions of a school disturbed. A disturbed academic session affects the education and syllabus remained incomplete. Tuition compensate the loss of education occurred due to disturbed academic schedule

Indifferent Attitude of Teacher and Students- Indifferent attitude of teacher and students promote the tuition. Teachers teach in class room for the sake of teaching not as performing their duty on the other hand. Some teachers come to class room only for formality, just passing the time and mark their attendance. Similarly some students come to school either for completing their attendance or for entertainment. Sometimes the personality of teacher or his language and pronunciation may be reason of indifferent attitude of students. All these things promote the tuition in the society. Tuition can be seen as social habit in the society.

Already Learned Subject Matter-Most of the students take the tuition; particularly   students of class 10th and 12th of public school take the tuition since the beginning of academic session. They have already learnt whatever teacher is teaching in the class room or they think that they will learn the current topic in tuition. That is the reason, these  students are not attentive in the class room and they play mischievous. When students do not show their interest, accordingly teachers develop their attitude towards teaching. Teachers are the part of this society, when they see tuition is taken as social habit in the society they lose the interest of teaching in the class room.. Few  teachers were not take  teaching sincearly because they know most of the students are taking tuition of their respective subject..

Extra- curricular Activities- Non formal way of education is the good and effective method of teaching. But excess is always harmful. For example the trend of giving the project after completing the every lesson is deviating the aim of giving the projects. These projects helpful in grasping deep knowledge about the lesson or subject and the students have to complete such projects in a limited time frame but they have to do the home work of other subjects. Such limitations of time make them to take the help of an expert available in the market. Some time the topic of the projects only available on the internet. What students will do if they do not have computer or internet at their home? So most of the students do not complete the projects (charts, models and diagrams) themselves. Either they take the help of parents or other persons or get it complete from the expert available in the market after paying the fee. This is another form of tuition.

Nuclear Families- In these days our society has a trend of nuclear families. In joint families, per person income comes out very lass. Generally one or two members earned and others were eating. Share of family income very less per member. But in nuclear families share of family income very high. Every parent wants to give all those things to their children, what they were deprived to get in their time due to large size of family. It includes education also. In nuclear family, where size of family planned by parents by one or two children. They want to give the best education to their children. If they are not able to teach themselves their children, they easily hire a tutor.

Socio-economic Status Symbol- Tuition has become a status symbol of our society like expensive gadgets, vehicles and branded garments. Parents, whose ward do not require tuition because they read in primary or below primary classes, hire a tutor just to show their status symbol in spite of that they are having enough ability and time to teach their wards.

No Control on Coaching Institutions- There is no policy of government to restrict the coaching institutions. These institutions help to increase the habit of tuition. Coaching institutions impart the knowledge not only for academic courses but also prepare students for the admission test in professional institutions. Naturally they charge heavily for their services. Because they hire best faculty from all over the country. But this is a faulty system. It seems as these institutions are made for rich persons or to exploit the poor parentsThis system not only will give the necessary feed back to teacher but also encourage the students to attentive in the class room. It is require to overview all the education policy.

Partial Attitude of the Teachers- School teachers has the partial attitude towards those students who are taking tuitions from them. They have more interaction with such type of students and pay them extra attention in the class room. Even their partial attitudes reflect when they evaluate the answer sheet of examination. Such types of attitude of teacher psychological encourage the students for taking tuition from them. Although it is a black spot on the profession of a teacher but it is true that some time who are not taking tuition because the victim of violence mentally of physically made by a teacher and to save themselves from this violence, students have no alternative except opting the tuition.

Importance and Nature of Specific Subjects-Trend of tuition is seen in particular subjects like Maths, Science, Accountancy and English. Generally trend to English tuition is seen in Hindi speaking State or in Hindi medium schools.

Faulty School Administration- Faulty school administration also promotes the tuition. Faulty administration may be the form of faulty time table or allotment of  a class to in improper teacher. School administration should recognize those sections of students and area of the subjects which needs more time of teacher accordingly time table should be prepared. Beside this, administration should recognize the caliber of a teacher before giving the class in his hand. If above factors mismatch it will hamper the quality of education. If quality of education affects then it will promote tuition.

Faulty Education Policies Imposed by Government- Faulty education policy of Government promote tuition. For example there is-

•             No Uniform syllabus at all India level

•             Number of schools are not increased.

•             More sections  are not in the school and no restriction on  teacher students’ ratio

•             Examination policy not revised .

•             No stoppage  to indulge teacher in performing other duties like election or census duties.

•             Interference of politician and bureaucrats in education matters and policies,and decisions taken by those people who have no concern with education.

•             There is no ban for school teacher to give private tuition.

The above was the one side of the coin and the other side is, that every one of us wants a better life and earns for that. To live the better life and earning for that is not a sin. In the present social system when parents opt planned family only one or two child. What is wrong if their expectations are very high. Every child is not endowed with a sharp mind or some other reasons he has to take the help of tuition. Tuition is a tool to make children perfect in education and help them to stand in a competitive life. It helps in making the dreams true of their parents.

Indians, who had a chance to visit European countries and America, experienced that standard of our school education or you can say syllabus covered by our school is far-far better than Europe, America or Canada. Even America President Obama appealed the American students, “Americans either read Mathematics otherwise Indian will defeat you in the race of progress”. It means syllabus covered by our schools is good. Even up to some limit quality of education is also good. Only the thing is that such quality is gained 90% with the help of tuition and 10% from school education. Secondly, education is not extended in the weaker section of the society. It is limited up to middle class or lower middle class.

The extent of socio-economic gains derived from education and the resource costs borne by stakeholders, namely the beneficiary students and service providers, widely differ for various levels and types of courses. The measurement of such benefit and costs are, however, fraught with many conceptual and measurement difficulties. The socio-economic benefits reaped by students over the entire span of working life are, therefore, accepted axiomatically. It is generally perceived that the cost of not acquiring new knowledge and skills are more than the cost of obtaining them. In fact, the costs of provision of educational services borne by private coaching institutions and students/parents, are, therefore, considered equal to or less than the expenditure incurred by the beneficiary students. The expected gains from education and training generate high demand for educational services like coaching institutions, which when not provided by the government or other philanthropic organizations, encourage private investors and entrepreneurs to offer various courses on self-financing basis.

 

Dr. V.K. Maheshwari, Former Principal

K.L.D.A.V(P.G) College, Roorkee, India.

 

Swami Vivekananda was the epitome of all that was great and good in the India of the past. With Shankara’s intellect he combined Buddha’s heart, Christ’s renunciation, and the Prophet of Arabia’s spirit of equality, and the result of this holy confluence will in time flood the whole world. –Swami Madhavmanda

Indian society in the nineteenth century had fallen into a stage of degeneration after centuries of Afghan and Mughal, and then British rule. The British rule, specially, had created widespread poverty and hunger, and the propaganda of their missionaries had created a sense of insecurity among the people about their traditional customs and beliefs. Faced with this threat, the caste–ridden society had retreated into a shell, and in order to protect themselves from this attack became more orthodox and repressive. At this crucial period rose a number of important reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Dayanand Saraswati and Swami Vivekananda. They strived ceaselessly to reform the Indian society, and in doing so, raised a new voice of pan– Indian nationalism. They were thus the vanguards of the Freedom Movement. This first voice of protest was not so much against the political exploitation by the British but against their moral exploitation of the Indian society, and this was to guide and provide the unique feature of the Indian Freedom struggle.

Among these leaders, Vivekananda position was unique in that he was in close touch with both the core of Hindu religious thought and with the Western philosophy. He was thus able to take up the best features of both in his work and attempt to fuse them in his dream of the future. The message he preached in India was not the one of renunciation and mysticism that she was used to hearing. Instead he cried for work – work for the downtrodden and poor of the country, work to revitalize the society as a whole. Strength, strength was his message to Indians– physical strength, moral strength, strength to work for others. He railed against the weakness that had crept into the society, and preached self control for the young. And it was a message powered by his own example and his tireless work throughout the country.

Swami Vivekananda is one of the most enduring icons of the rise of Indian nationalism in modern India. We know him today as being one among the first generation of leaders who raised the voice of Indian nationality. Equally important is that he was an intensely religious man who lived a life immersed in spirituality. His position was unique in that along with a modern education which gave him a critical attitude, and his account of his experience and the importance of this in his life is as important as his work in nation building.

“In spite of her innumerable linguistic, ethnic, historical and regional diversities, India has had from time immemorial a strong sense of cultural unity. It was, however, Swami Vivekananda who revealed the true foundations of this culture and thus clearly defined and strengthened the sense of unity as a nation.

Swami Vivekananda gave Indians proper understanding of their country’s great spiritual heritage and thus gave them pride in their past. Several eminent leaders of India’s freedom movement have acknowledged their indebtedness to Swamiji. Free India’s first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru wrote: “Rooted in the past, full of pride in India’s prestige, Vivekananda was yet modern in his approach to life’s problems, and was a kind of bridge between the past of India and her present … he came as a tonic to the depressed and demoralized Hindu mind and gave it self-reliance and some roots in the past.” Where can you find a man like him? Study what he wrote, and learn from his teachings, for if you do, you will gain immense strength. Take advantage of the fountain of wisdom, of Spirit, and of fire that flowed through Vivekananda!

Similarly Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose wrote: “Swami Vivekananda harmonized the East and the West, religion and science, past and present. And that is why he is great. Our countrymen have gained unprecedented self-respect, self-reliance and self-assertion from his teachings.”

Vivekananda repeatedly told that India’s downfall was largely due to her negligence of women. The great images of  Brahmavadinis like Maitreyi and Gargi of the Upanishad age, and women missionaries like Sanghamitra carrying Buddha’s message to Syria and Macedonia, all were laying buried deep due to millennium of foreign domination.

There is no chance of the welfare of the world unless the condition of women is improved. It is not possible for a bird to fly on  – Swami Vivekananda

Vivekananda strongly reasoned the cause of such degradation of Indian women “ The principal reason why our race has so degenerated is that we had no respect for these living images of Shakti. Manu says,” Where women are respected, there the Gods delight, and where they are not, there all work and efforts come to naught.’’ There is no hope of rise for that family or country where they live in sadness. The Swami was particularly worried about the degradation of women in India.

Vivekananda strongly believes that   There is a huge difference in the attitude of  Indian men and their western counterparts .Indian men believes that the women are born to please them.  The real Shakti-worshipper is he who knows that God is the omnipresent force in the universe, and sees in women the manifestation of that force. In America men look upon their women in this light and treat their women as well as can be desired, and hence they are so prosperous, so learned, so free and so energetic.

So what happened to the theories that said that Indian men are family oriented and have a deep set of values embedded in them in them since childhood?.Actually it has a lot to do with their upbringing. In India, little boys are told that they are stronger than girls. That sparks off a dominating streak in them that stays with them throughout their lives and manifests various ways, be it teasing  a women on the road or treating the wife like a sex toy. It is the value learnt at home that affect through subtle messages parents often indicate that the girl will be going to another household, while the boy will earn and would inherit the family’s wealth. Naturally they grow up believing that they are superior to women and may mistreat their partners later. Why can’t we just tell little boys to be more sensitive towards girls rather than feeding their brains about such lame notion. There is no chance for the welfare of the world unless the condition of women is improved. . Swami  Vivekananda  said, “It is very difficult to understand why in this country so much difference is made between men and women, whereas the Vedanta declares that one and the same conscious self is present in all beings. You always criticize the women, but what have you done for their enlistment?”

Swami Vivekananda glorified Indian women of the past for their great achievements as leaders in various walks of life. He proudly states that “Women in statesmanship, managing territories, governing countries, even making war, have proved themselves equal to men, if not superior. In India I have no doubt of that. Whenever they have had the opportunity, they have proved that they have as much ability as men, with this advantage – that they seldom degenerate. They keep to the moral standard, which is innate in their nature. And thus as governors and rulers of their state, they prove-at least in India far superior to men. John Stuart Mill mentions this fact.”

Swami Vivekananda was a monk who at one time saw women as an obstacle. However on realizing the highest truth he saw no distinction between sexes and saw in women the presence of the Divine Mother.

For Swami Vivekananda, It is  real difficult to understand why in this country [India] so much difference is made between men and women, whereas the Vedanta declares that one and the same conscious Self is present in all beings. You always criticize the women, but say what have you done for their uplift? Writing down Smritis etc., and binding them by hard rules, the men have turned the women into manufacturing machines! If you do not raise the women, who are living embodiment of the Divine Mother, don’t think that you have any other way to rise.

Swami Vivekananda once rightly questioned “ In what scriptures do you find statements that women are not competent for knowledge and devotion? In the period of degeneration, when the priests made the other castes incompetent for the study of the Vedas, they deprived the women also of all their righ ts. Otherwise you will find that in the Vedic or Upanishadic age Maitreyi, Gargi, and other ladies of revered memory have taken places of Rishis through their skill in discussing about Brahman. In an assembly of a thousand Brahmans who were all erudite in the Vedas, Gargi boldly challenged Yagnavalkya in a discussion about Brahman. Since such ideal women were entitled to spiritual knowledge, why shall not the women have same privilege now? What has happened once can certainly happen again. History repeats itself. All nations have attained greatness by paying proper respect to women. That country and that nation which do not respect women have never become great, nor will ever be in future. The principal reason why your race h! ! ! ! as so much degenerated is that you have no respect for these living images of Shakti.” Manu says, “Where women are respected, there the gods delight; and where they are not, there all works and efforts come to naught.” There is no hope of rise for that family or country where there is no estimation of women, where they live in sadness. (V7. p.214-15)

Swami Vivekananda ,rightly observed that the condition of women in Mughal-ruled and British-ruled India was deplorable .The mid-nineteenth century India saw women, the great mother – power ,shackled and degenerated to mere “child producing machines” as Vivekananda saw it.In the period of degradation, when the priests made the other castes incompetent to study the Vedas, they deprived the women also of all their rights. You will find in the Vedic and Upanishadic age Maitreyi, Gargi and other ladies of revered memory have taken the place of Rishis.In an assembly of a thousand Brahmanas who were all erudite in the Vedas, Gargi boldly challenged Yajnavalkya in a discussion about Brahman,

Swami Vivekananda was of the firm opinion that women should be put in positions of power to solve their own problems in their own way. The welfare of the world is dependent on the improvement of the condition of the women.

When people are discussing as to what man and woman can do, always the same mistake is made. They think they show man at his best because he can fight, for instance, and undergo tremendous physical exertion; and this is pitted against the physical weakness and non-combating quality of woman. This is unjust. Woman is as courageous as man. Each is equally good in his or her way. What man can bring up a child with such patience, endurance, and love as the woman can? The one has developed the power of doing; the other, the power of suffering. If woman cannot act, neither can man suffer. The whole universe is one of perfect balance. (CW V.2,p.25-26)

He was emphatic that women must be educated, for he believed that it is the women who mould the next generation, and hence, the destiny of the country? In Vivekananda’s educational scheme for India, the uplift of women and the masses received the highest priority. The idea of perfect womanhood is perfect independence.

What was the way out to save and elevate Indian woman? Education was the answer. But what kind of education? What is women’s education? Sister Christine wrote that for weeks and months Vivekananda would be buried in thought, creating and recreating the splendid image of the Indian woman of the future. Would a combination of the western spirit of independence, freedom, and dynamism with Indian austerity, purity and chastity in woman’s life be possible?

Women have many and grave problems, but none that cannot be solved by that magic word:  Education. ‘Daughters should be supported and educated with as much Care and attention as the sons.’ As sons should be married after observing Brahmacharya up to the thirtieth year, so daughters also should observe Brahmacharya and be educated by their parents Vivekananda was against the early marriage. Early marriage was the very reason for the existence of so many widows, so many women dying early and the birth of emaciated children who would only increase the number of beggars in the country.

“Women – I should very much like our woman to have your intellectuality, but not if it must be at the cost of purity.”

Our Hindu women easily understand what chastity means, because it is their heritage. First of all intensify that ideal within them above everything else, so that they may develop a strong character by the force of which, in every stage of their lives, whether married or single if they prefer to remain so they will not be in the least afraid even to give up their lives rather than flinch an inch from their chastity.

Swami Vivekananda views woman exactly as he views man, an individual with a destiny. In the sphere of the pursuit of spiritual realization, which is the highest reach of life, woman as well as man, has to walk in a single file. Perfect freedom, independence and responsibility are involved in the individual, be it man or woman, who longs for God alone. “In India the mother is the centre of the family and our highest ideal. She is to us the representative of God, as God is the mother of the universe. It was a female sage who first found the unity of God, and laid down this doctrine in one of the first hymns of the Vedas. Our God is both personal and absolute, the absolute is male, the personal, female,” he said.

If you do not allow one to become a lion, he will become a fox. Women are a power, only now it is more evil because man oppresses woman; she is the fox, but when she is no longer oppressed, she will be the lion (CW vol.7,p.22)

But what are we actually doing? They have all the time been trained in helplessness ,and servile dependence on others; and so they are good only to weep their eyes out at the approach of the slightest mishap or danger. Women must be put in a position to solve their own problems in their own way. Our Indian women are as capable of doing it as any in the world.

Swami Vivekananda glorified Indian women of the past for their great achievements as leaders in various walks of life India’s reverence for women as the symbol of chastity brought such words from Vivekananda lips:

“I know that the race that produced Sita – even if it only dreamt of her – has a reverence for woman that is unmatched on the earth.”

The women of India must grow and develop in the footprints of Sita.  She is unique. She is the Very type of the true Indian woman .And here she stands these thousands of years, commanding the worship of every man, woman and child throughout the length and breadth of Aryavarta.

There she will always be, this glorious Sita, purer than purity itself, all patience, and all suffering. She who suffered that life of suffering without a murmur, she the ever chaste and ever pure wife, the ideal of the people, our national Goddess she must always remain. She has gone into the very vitals of our race. Any attempt to modernize our women, If it tries to take our women away from that ideal of Sita, is immediately a failure as we see every day.

Studying the present needs of the age, it seems imperative to train some of them up in the ideals of renunciation, so that they will take up the vow of We-long virginity, Fired with the strength of that virtue of chastity which is innate in their blood from hoary antiquity. Our motherland requires for her well-being some of her children to become pure soul Brahmacharins

Even if one amongst the women became a knower of Brahman, then by the radiance of her personality, Thousands of women would be inspired and awakened to truth, and great well-being of the country and society would ensue.

Female education should be spread with religion as its centre. All other training should be secondary to religion. Religious Training, the formation of character and observance of the vows of celibacy these should be attended to Brahmacharinis of education and character should take up the task of teaching. In villages and towns they must open centers and strive for the spread of female education. Through such devout preachers of character, there will secular education .The real spread of female education in the country.

History and Puranos, house-keeping and the arts, the duties of home life and the principles that make for the development of character have to be taught. Other matters such as sewing, culinary art, rules of domestic work and upbringing of children will also be taught. Japa, worship and meditation shall form an indispensable part of the teach-Self-defense. . . Along with other things they should acquire the spirit of velour and heroism. In the present day it has become necessary for them also to learn self-defense how grand was the Queen of Jhansi!

Women – “Be Emboldened”; “Embodiment of Goddess of Mother”

Men and women in every country, have different ways of understanding and judging things. Men have one angle of vision, women another; men argue from one standpoint, women from another. Men extenuate women and lay the blame on men; while women exonerate men and heap all the heap on women. (CW V.7, p.378)

“In the West its ideal is wife, in India in the mother”.

“In India the mother is the center of the family and our highest ideal. She is to us the representative of God, as God is the mother of the universe. It was a female sage who first found the unity of God, and laid down this doctrine in one of the first hymns of the Vedas. Our God is both personal and absolute, the absolute is male, the personal, female. And thus it comes that we now say: ’The first manifestation of God is the hand that rocks the cradle’.” (CW V.4 p.170)

Vivekananda declared that the western ideal of womanhood is wife, while the eastern ideal is mother. “The very peculiarity of Hindu women which they have developed and which is the ideal of their life, is that of the mother…………”A nation that has educated itself to look upon God as Mother has learnt to invest its view of woman with the utmost tenderness and reverence. Swami Vivekananda is the first monk to uphold and do work for the freedom and equality of women and realizing her importance for the functioning of home and society.

So shall we bring to the need of India great fearless women? Women worthy to continue the traditions of Sanghamitta, Lila, and Ahalya Bai and Mira Bai women fit to be mothers of heroes, because they are pure and fearless, strong with the strength that comes of touching the feet of God.” We must see to their growing up as ideal Matrons of home in time. The children of such mothers will make further progress in the virtues that distinguishes them. It is only in the homes of educated and pious mothers are born.

It is the strong belief of Swami Vivekananda that if the women are raised, their children will by their noble actions glorify the name of the country; then will culture, knowledge, power and devotion awake in the country.

With five hundred men, the conquest of India might take fifty years; with as many women not more than a few weeks.

The rise of outstanding women administrators, statesmen, scientists, writers and spiritual teachers, is gradually proving the truth of these prophetic words.Today   Swami Vivekananda  words have proved true. Following

the footsteps of Sarada Devi and Sister Nivedita hundreds of women all over the world are coming forward with a combination of the ‘mother’s heart and the hero’s will,’ a combination of the purity of Holy Mother and the dynamism of Rani of Jhansi or Joan of Arc.

All nations have attained greatness by paying proper respect to women. That country and that nation which do not respect women have never become great, nor will ever be in future, amen.

References

Srimad Bhagavad Gita 5.25. An ancient Indian scripture.

Israel Scheffler, Of human potential, Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985.

Edgar Faure et al., Learning to be, Paris: UNESCO, 1972, p. 156.

Ahluwalia, B. 1983. Vivekananda and the Indian Renaissance. New Delhi: Associated PublishingCo.

Avinashalingam, T.S. 1974. Educational philosophy of Swami Vivekananda. 3rd ed. Coimbatore:

Burke, M.L. 1984. Swami Vivekananda in the West: new discoveries, 6 vols. Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama.

Gnatuk-Danil’chuk, A.P. 1986. Tolstoy and Vivekananda. Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission.

His Eastern and Western Disciples. 1989. The life of Swami Vivekananda. 2 vols. 6th ed. Calcutta:

Hossain, M. 1980. Swami Vivekananda’s philosophy of education. Calcutta: Ratna Prakashan.

Nivedita, Sister. 1999. The Master as I saw him. 9th ed., 12th printing. Calcutta: Udbodhan Office.

Sengupta, S.C. 1984. Swami Vivekananda and Indian nationalism. Calcutta: Shishu SahityaSamsad.

Singh, S.K. 1983. Religious and moral philosophy of Swami Vivekananda. Patna: Janaki Prakashan.

Acknowledgement

-  To Dr Veena Shastri. Ph.D for being the scribe of this article

 

 

Dr. V.K. Maheshwari, Former Principal

K.L.D.A.V(P.G) College, Roorkee, India.

“Education is like a crumbling building that needs constant upkeep with repairs and additions”~ Louis Dudeck

 

 

Workshop is defined as assembled group of ten to twenty five persons who share a common interest or problem. They meet together to improve their individual and skill of a subject through intensive study, research, practice and discussion.

The term workshop has been borrowed from engineering. There are usually workshops in the engineering. In these workshops persons have to do some task with their hand to produce something, Question Bank Workshops are organized in education to prepare questions on the subject. The designers are given knowledge and training for preparing questions in the workshop.

Teaching is a continuum from conditioning to indoctrination and training The new innovations and practices of education are introduced by organizing workshop in which teachers are trained to use new practices in their teaching learning process. The workshops are organized to develop the  cognitive and psychomotor aspects of the learner regarding practices of new innovations in area of education. Participants have to do some practical work to produce instructional teaching and testing material.

Objective of Workshop

General objective:

To enhance the capabilities of teachers in planning and implementing instruction in teachers training classes as well as in evaluating pupil performance.

Acquire deeper understanding of the philosophy, goals, objectives, special features of teaching, and the different roles of teachers in teaching .

Demonstrate competence in:

·               the preparation of lesson plans, tests and instructional materials.

·               The use of instructional materials.

·               The use of different teaching strategies.

·               Drawing in a community support.

·               Structuring class rooms for effective teaching.

Demonstrate training skills in designing training programs for teachers, school administrators and supervisors.

Objectives related with Cognitive  domain

The workshop is organized to achieve the following cognitive objectives:

• To solve the problem of teaching profession.
• To provide the philosophical and sociological background for instructional and teaching situation.
• To identify the educational objectives in the present context.
• To develop an understanding regarding the use of a theme and problem.

Objectives related with psychomotor domain

The following objectives are achieved by this technique under psychomotor domain:

• To develop the proficiency for planning and organizing teaching and instructional activities.
• To develop the skills to perform a task independently.
• To determine and use of teaching strategies effectively.
• To train the persons for using different approaches of teaching.

Functions of workshop

Workshops are great for brainstorming, interactive learning, building relationships, and problem solving. The purpose of higher learning is to develop the capacity to respect the ideas and feelings of others; healthy criticism, appreciation, and present own ideas and seek clarification. The learner should be able to present his own views on the theme. These potentialities can only be developed by employing higher technique of teaching and instruction at higher level. A workshop is one of the main techniques used for higher learning.

• The workshop technique is used to seek explore and identify the solutions to a problem; to permit the extensive study of a situation its background and its social and philosophical implications.
• It is used for insurance teachers for giving awareness and training of new practices and innovation.
• It provides an opportunity to prepare specific professional vocational or community, service functions. A high degree of individual participation is encouraged. It permits group determination of goal and method.

Organizational Procedure of a Workshop

Prepare for a workshop that will be not only relevant and productive, but memorable. This is why advance planning is a necessity. Follow these phases to make sure your workshop a valuable experience for everyone:

Pre-active phase

Designing and implementing a workshop takes a lot of preparation. After deciding what to do, make sure that everything – from handouts to equipment – is ready so the workshop runs smoothly and learning can occur. Participants should have clear expectations for your workshop and how it fits into larger Education efforts.

Plan the budget

This is an important first step. Check with the school management and see if there is a budget set aside for inter-active co-academic activities  ,also check with the university or directorate of higher education or government agencies attached with Human resource ministry, as they may also offer limited funds to organize the workshop.. Local businesses may donate money or charge a small admission fee if necessary.

Build support for the workshop. This means getting approval, resources and/or help from colleagues, administrators, financial supporters, and other key player for the workshop. Explain to them how the workshop will enhance and complement the mission of their institution, It is also important to discuss with these key players where they might like to be involved in planning, implementing, and evaluating your workshop.

Locate Resource personnel

Look for a Resource personnel, there are several resources to locate a qualified Resource personnel.

Once the Resource personnel is located there are several important questions need to be asked-

·               Resource personnel fee

·               Resource personnel availability

·               Resource personnel needs (power, technical equipment, seating, tables, screen)

·               What topics they will cover and length of presentation

·               Method of payment accepted

·               Cancellation policy

 

Things to confirm with the Resource personnel

One week before workshop confirm the date, time, address and any special needs with the  Resource personnel. Provide a cell phone number to the Resource personnel, so that they can reach if there are any delays or issues.

Select a topic

Think about topics that will be of interest to the learning community as a whole. Selecting a topic that is too narrow will create difficulty to get a lot of attendees.  Some sample topics that are often popular with teacher educators’ are-

1.            New format of lesson planning.

2.            Writing objective in behavioral terms.

3.            Preparing objective type tests which are objective centered.

4.            Action research projects for classroom problems.

5.            Preparing instructional material or teaching model.

6.            Workshop on Micro teaching.

7.            Workshop on Interaction analysis technique.

8.            Workshop on test construction.

9.            Workshop on preparing research synopsis or proposals.

10.          Workshop on non formal education.

11.          Workshop on designing program for teacher education.

Define the Goals /Create an Agenda

Many workshops are a waste of time because there’s no clear goal kept at the center of the discussion. Every workshop must have a goal

Now as the primary objective is clear and knowledge about participants is known , start to develop an outline of how to achieve the workshop’s goal.

Main points – Create a list of main points to discuss, and then break down each larger point into details to communicate to the participants.

Visual aids – List the visual aids, if any, to be used for each point. Provide technical support, this helps the people providing it to determine where they need to focus their efforts.

Discussions and activities – Take time to list exactly which group discussions and activities one have at which point in the workshop. How much time will be allowed  for each exercise? Make sure the activities are appropriate for the size of the group, and ensure that the venue has the resources (for example, seminar rooms) needed to run sessions.

Remember, the more detailed the plan will be, the more the probability will be  that the workshop will run to schedule – and be successful.

Decide the Audience

Knowing who will attend directly relates to the objective. For example, if the workshop’s goal is to develop a detailed solution to a problem, then probably 10 or fewer key attendees will be enough.. If the goal is centered on education, then be happy with a much larger group, which divides into smaller groups for discussion.

Make a list of who needs to be there. Try to be as specific as possible, but leave a few openings for last-minute additions.

Know the target audience and know how they feel about taking part in a workshop designing. To know this there is really a need to ask them. Documenting participants’ experiences of the topic before the workshop will help to develop a more effective and successful program. Make sure to ask participants about their expectations, needs and interests as well as prior knowledge and skills on the topics they hope to cover. Then use the information to develop the workshop goals and objectives.

Select the Right Location

If number of participants is small, then the conference room probably be just fine. But if there are more participants, find an outside location that’s large enough.

Think about the logistics and practical details of the workshop when to choose the location. Will everyone be able to see the visual aids? If there is a need for a certain technology, like teleconferencing, will the location support it?

Are there appropriate facilities for breakout sessions? Will everyone be able to reach the venue? Will there is a need to organize accommodation for people who are coming from a long way away? And what catering facilities does the venue provide?

Room arrangement is important. One needs to set up the workshop space to facilitate learning and interaction. If one has designed small group activities throughout the workshop, one might want four or five participants seated at each table, which is angled so everyone can easily see the front of the room. If there is a large group than don’t plan to use smaller discussion sessions, try arranging the chairs in semicircular rows, with a middle aisle and space on all sides. Posters, maps and other visual aids should be used to help enliven the room. The goal is to create an environment where everyone feels comfortable, where one can walk around and interact with participants, and where everyone can see everyone else.

Arrange required   Resources

Expand capability of institutions.

·               Equipment/other facilities.

·               Production of materials

·               Financial support for training and materials and curriculum development.

Expert assistance

·               Development and production of materials.

·               Training

·               Management of project

·               Curriculum and instruction

.               Information on teaching ,brochures literature, etc

Arrange other Audio-Visual Aids

Workshop facilitators use audio-visual aids to enhance their workshops and the different learning styles of workshop participants. Slides, videos and films can bring environmental concepts to life. Handouts, overheads or flip charts can be used to emphasize a point by drawing attention to it and thereby enabling participants to focus on the topic. The choice of medium will depend on many things – room design, workshop format, topic, amount of time available, time of day, and personal preference. Here are a few things to think about when making the choices.

Newsprint/Flip Chart/Chalkboard

Write large enough so that letters can be read at the back of a room. A flip chart has several advantages: pieces of paper can be saved and hung on the walls as “visuals” and the papers can be prepared before the workshop, and saved from one workshop to the next. Use appropriate colors, and keep the amount of text per page to a minimum.

Overhead Projection

For workshops with a large number of participants, “overhead transparencies” have the advantages of the image being larger and the facilitator faces the group while writing. Transparencies can also be prepared in advance. Keep the text to a minimum and use large letters.

Develop a Follow-up Plan

Before starting each workshop, think about how it will be evaluated. Use this evaluation to revise and improve the workshop. Try some of the many different ways of conducting workshop evaluations, from paper to pencil evaluations to small group discussions. Make sure to evaluate and revise the workshop accordingly.

The only way to find out if the workshop was a success is to have an effective follow-up plan. Create a questionnaire to give to all participants at the end of the event, and give them plenty of opportunity to share their opinions on how well it went. Although this can be a bit scary, it’s the only way to learn – and improve – for the next time.

It’s also important to have a plan to communicate the decisions that were reached during the workshop. Send out a mass email to everyone with the details? Put it on your college’s intranet? People need to know that their hard work actually resulted in a decision or action, so keep them informed about what’s happening after the workshop has ended.

Active Phase-

Generally workshops are organized for three to ten days. In special cases the period of workshop may be 40 days. It depends on the nature of task assigned to the workshop .

Set the Right Tone

When a group of teacher educators files into a room to take part in a workshop each participant brings certain expectations, fears and experiences. As the workshop facilitator, one need to build on their knowledge and background to create a welcoming climate. Remember that workshop participants are likely to have different learning styles as well as a desire to take part in activities that will generate positive feedback and peer respect. By using the facilitation skills and attending to participants’ learning build an atmosphere of trust and help the participants get the most out of the experience. There is also need to plan opportunities for ongoing support arising from the workshop.

Start the meeting with a few icebreakers to get everyone relaxed and comfortable.

Open the workshop with something that motivates participants and gets them excited about it. The opening can also provide a rationale for why learning for a sustainable environment is important to participants and how the workshop will be useful to them. This is the time to make introductions, conduct a relevant ice-breaker activity, read a motivational quotation or story, or use a special demonstration or gimmick to get the attention of the participants and draw them into the workshop. If this is not the first session, use part of this time to describe how the new session fits into the overall framework of the workshop. After that, ask a question or two to help participants focus on the topic .

Before a workshop begins, it is important to present the purpose of the activity to the participants. Make sure workshop goals and objectives are written clearly on a flip chart or overhead transparency so that all participants can see them. Clearly state what information and skills the participants  are to gain by the end of the workshop. This is also the time to discuss how to used information from the participants’ responses to questions about their experiences with/or learning for the topic, to develop the workshop goals and objectives and to design the workshop. Build some options into the agenda so that participants can help design their own schedule based on the needs they wish to fulfill.

Present the theme to provide awareness.

This stage continues first two days of the schedule. In the first stage theoretical background is provided to the participants.  Resource persons or experts are invited to provide the awareness and understanding of the topic. Paper reading is done to discuss the different aspects of the theme. The trainees or participants are given opportunities to seek clarification. The experts provide the suitable illustration and steps for using it in classroom teaching or education.

Give participants an opportunity to ask questions about the goals or objectives, add ideas, or raise concerns. For it conduct an expectations activity: ask participants to list their expectations on a flip chart and then explain how some or most of these will be met during the course of the workshop. Display their expectations on the wall and refer to them at the end of the workshop.

Planning the groups

Divide the workshop participants into two large groups and then subdivide each of these in smaller groups. Be sure that there are equal numbers of small groups.

Practice the approach for its applicability. In the second stage the group is divided into small groups e.g., a workshop for lesson planning or writing objectives in behavioral term. The groups are formed on the basis of subjects (Hindi, Science, Math’s, Social Studies). A  Resource person or expert is assigned to provide the guidance for the work to be performed. The expert provides guidance and supervises the work of each trainee of his group. Every participant has to work individually and independently. Every trainee has to complete his task within the given time period. At the end they meet in their groups and discuss and present their task to be completed.

Involve the Participants

After having  a solid advance plan, figure out how to bring some excitement into the event. Make the information fun and memorable for the team?

Creating group exercises is different for each workshop. Keep these tips in mind:

·               Many people are nervous about speaking up in an unfamiliar group. For plan group exercises, keep the size of each group small, so people are more comfortable talking and interacting.

·               Mix up different types of people in each group.

·               Determine how to record the ideas from each group.

There are many ways to design effective workshops. However, in all workshops it is best to engage participants in thought-provoking activities and discussions directly relevant to their work and lives. It doesn’t take long for participants to tune in if they can make the connection between the workshop and their own experiences. Incorporate the experiential learning cycle into all workshop sessions to ensure high interest, relevance, and engagement. Also remember to model effective education strategies that involve participants and show them how they can use the same techniques in their own teacher education work.

Where possible, avoid holding the workshop after lunch, between 2:00 and 3:00 in the afternoon. For many people, this is their slowest, most unproductive time of day. The group will probably be more energetic if schedule the event in the morning or late afternoon. (If one have to run the workshop in the early afternoon, make sure there’s plenty of strong coffee available!).

Post Active Phase

Evaluate the material prepared

Evaluate the material prepared by the participants, as follow up. For this groups meet at one place and present their reports of work done at second stage. The participants are given opportunists to comment and give suggestions of different aspects of the report; formalities are observed at the end of the workshop.

Generalizing is one of the most important parts of a workshop. By trying to identify key generalizations about the experience, participants can see how the activity relates to themselves. Questions such as “What insights did you get from this experience?” or “What was the most important lesson from the session and why?” can help participants begin to think about how the experience relates to their everyday work and lives. When generalizing, participants can learn by listening to others and may even change their attitudes as a result of doing so. Generalizing questions nudge participants to broader levels of analysis: instead of reviewing and commenting on specifics, they are asked to address an overall perspective, insight, or attitude.

Concluding workshop and Follow- up :

The workshop should end with, the facilitator, briefly summarizing the key workshop events , linking these to the goals and original expectations. It is important for participants to feel that they accomplished what they set out to do, that their expectations were met, and that there is closure. Use this step to close one session and make a link to the next one

A follow-up program is an important part of a good workshop. The effectiveness of a workshop is ascertained by a follow up program. The trainees are asked to continue their task and examine the workability and usability in their institutions. The participants are invited to meet again and present their experiences regarding applicability of the topic or new practices. They may give some practical suggestion in this context. A report of the workshop is prepared.

At the end of the workshop, hand out an evaluation sheet to the attendees. This will help to determine if the workshop was well received and can often offer an opportunity to poll attendees about interest in future workshop programs.

Roles in Workshop

Role of Organizer of the Workshop

The programmed and schedule is prepared by the organizer. He has to arrange for boarding and lodging facilities for participants as well as the experts.

Role of convener in First Stage.

At first stage of the workshop theoretical aspects are discussed by the experts on the theme of the workshop. Therefore, a convener is nominated or invited who is well acquaint with the theme or the workshop. He has to conduct workshop at this stage and he has to observe the formalities and key note of the workshop.

Role of Experts or Resource persons

In organizing a workshop, resources persons play an important role in providing theoretical and practical aspects of the theme. They provide guidance to participants at every stage and train them to perform the task effectively

Role of Participants or Trainees

The participants should be keen or interested in the theme of the workshop. At the first stage, they have to acquire understanding of the theme. At second stage, they have to practice and perform the task will great interest and seek proper guidance from the experts. They should try to carry the concept to their classroom to evaluate its workability in actual situation. They effectiveness of any workshop depends upon the involvement of the participants in the task.

Advantages of Workshop Technique

• It is use to realize the higher cognitive and psychomotor objectives.
• It can be effectively used for developing understanding and proficiency for the approaches and practices in education.
• It is used for developing and improving professional efficiency.
• The teaching proficiency can be developed by using it.
• It provides the opportunities and situations to develop the individual capacities of a teacher.
• It develops the feeling cooperation and group work or team work.
• It provides the situation to study the vocational problems.
• It introduces new practices and innovations in Education.

Limitations of Workshop Technique

• Workshops in education are seminar cum workshop on any theme of problem.
• The student teachers do not take interest to understand and use the new practices in their classrooms.
• The workshop cannot be organized for large group so that large numberof persons are trained.
• Participants do not take interest in practical work or to do something in productive form.
• Generally follow up programs are not organized in workshop technique.
• It requires a lot of time form participant and staff.
• A large number of staff members are needed to handle participation.
• It demands special facilities or materials.
• Participants must be willing to work both independently and cooperatively.

The reason I do workshops is so I can learn, and I am fortunate that I’ve probably gained more from the whole experience of teaching than any one participant has. It is all about asking.
John Sexton

 

 

 

 

 

Dr. V.K. Maheshwari, Former Principal

K.L.D.A.V(P.G) College, Roorkee, India.

“Because I exist, because I think, therefore, I think that I exist.” According to the statement ‘I think’ it is clear that ‘I’ exists and it has existence. ‘I’ that exists is always subjective and not objective. Now the person because of knowing the object does not desire to know the object, but he emerges himself in knowing the self. Kierkegaard

Existentialism is the most individualistic of all modern philosophies. Its overriding concern is with the individual and its primary value is the absolute freedom of the person, who is only what he, makes himself to be, and who is the final and exclusive arbiter of the values he freely determines for himself. Great emphasis is placed on art, on literature, and the humanistic studies, for it is in these areas that man finds himself and discovers what values he will seek to attain.

The term “existentialism” seems to have been coined by the French philosopher Gabriel Marcel  and adopted by Jean-Paul Sartre, Etymological meaning of ‘existence’ from two German words -: ‘ex-sistent’ meaning that which stands out, that which ‘emerges’ suggests that existentialism is a philosophy that emerges out of problems of life.

Initially Existentialism may appear to be a morbid philosophy because it deals with depressing themes such as alienation, anxiety, death and crises. To conclude this however, would be to misunderstand it. An expressed purpose of so many of the philosophers, who have contributed to this school of thought, is to allow people to experience a greater richness and happiness in their lives and to feel at ‘home’ in their world. In order to achieve a richer and more valuable existence however, the philosophy often refers to some ‘uncomfortable’ suggestions

Just as the whole of Indian philosophy is an extension, interpretation, criticism and corroboration of the Vedas and in it the Upanishads or an outright revolt against them, similarly it may be remarked of western philosophy as either a clarification of Socrates or his rejection. One would be still right in saying that the whole of western philosophy is an appendix on Socrates. So it is even true with existentialism that Socrates has been considered to be the first existentialist. Socrates statement: “I am and always have been a man to obey nothing in my nature except the reasoning which upon reflection, appears to be the best.” Right from Plato down to Descartes, the majority of western thinkers have believed in the immutability of ideas and the rest of the thinkers have been suggesting correctives to it. Anyhow their frame of reference has always been ‘Essence Precedes Existence’, essence being referred to ideas, values, ideals, thoughts, etc. and existence being referred to our lives.

Theoretical Rationale of Existentialism

Rather than attempt to define existentialism (which existentialists themselves maintain is futile it might to be better to determine what the task of philosophy is according to the proponents of this school of thought. First of all, the existentialist does not concern himself with problems concerning the nature, origin, and destiny of the physical universe. The philosopher should not even concern himself with the basic assumptions of the physical or biological sciences.

Metaphysical Position

Concept of God

Frederic Nietzsche’s statement, “God is dead,” succinctly expresses the atheistic existentialist’s view on the issue of the existence of a supernatural realm. Nietzsche says: Where is God gone? I mean to tell you! We have killed him – you and I! Do we not here the noise of the grave – diggers who are burying God? God is dead! God remains dead! And we have killed! …. The holiest and the mightiest that the world has hitherto possessed had bled to death under our knife – …. What are our churches now, if they are not the tombs and monuments of God?

Assume that God exists and is all-powerful & all-knowing & all-good. Then also assume that evil exists in the world. Then God is either responsible for the existence of evil, in which case God is Himself evil & not all-good; or else God is not responsible for the existence of evil & yet knew that it was going to happen & couldn’t prevent it–so God is not all-powerful; or else God would have prevented evil but didn’t know it was going to happen, and is therefore not all-knowing. So given evil, God is either not all-good, not all-powerful, not all-knowing, or does not exist.

Concept of Self

Man is nothing else but what he makes of himself. Such is the first principle of existentialism.” Jean Paul Sartre

The very question of the nature of man is a meaningless one for the existentialist. In both of the sections above it was emphasized that man has no “nature” as such but rather that he must create his own essence. The uniqueness of man comes from his emotions, feelings, perception and thinking. The philosophy of existentialism stresses meaning, only through development of meaning in his life; man can make something of the absurdity which surrounds him. Man is the maker, and, therefore, the master of culture. It is man who imposes a meaning on his universe, although that universe may well function without him. Man cannot be ‘taught’ what the world is about. He must create this for himself.

Man is not alone in the world. He is connected to other men; he communicates with others; therefore, he cannot live in a state of anarchy. Life is seen as a gift, which, in part is a mystery. Man is free to choose commitments in life, in his choice, he becomes himself. He is the product of his choices. He is, therefore, an individual who is different from other persons.

Second, individual man is not bound to other men by any predetermined notion of brotherhood or by allegiance to a certain group. On the contrary, each man should express his freedom in the creation of his own selfhood, first by “withdrawing from the crowd,” and then by communicating only with those whom he personally chooses . Sartre feels that the entire network of social life is anti-individual. Churches, schools, political parties, and even the family tend to militate against man’s absolute freedom.

Epistemological position

The existentialist approach  to knowledge is known as the phenomenological method. The atheistic existentialists inherited this method from Husserl. It was adapted further by Heidegger and Sartre to suit their philosophy of “will and action,” especially as it concerns the individual… The phenomenological method consists in the expression of the experiences of consciousness through the media of ordinary language

Existentialists have given little attention to inductive reasoning. Science, they believe, has been one of the major dehumanizing forces in the modern world

In opposition to this cold impersonal approach to knowledge, the existentialist argues that true knowledge is “choosing, actions, living, and dying.”

Axiological position

Existential ethics

Kierkegaard reacted to this way of thinking by saying that it was up to the individual to find his or her own moral perfection and his or her own way there. “I must find the truth that is the truth for me . . . the idea for which I can live or die” he wrote.

Authenticity & human freedom

Existentialists have a special connotation of the Authentic man According to the existentialists, becoming authentic allows one to determine how things are to count towards one’s situation and how one is to act in relation to them.

Generally the existentialists consider authentic individuals to take responsibility for determining and choosing possibilities and not to simply become a determined product of a cultural moment. One can choose one’s own identity and possibilities rather than have these dictated by the crowd.

According to existential ethics the highest good for humans is “becoming an individual or “authenticity” = psychological coherence + integrity = not merely being alive but having a real life by being true to yourself

In authenticity & human unfreedom the failure to choose in this way, or the failure to take full responsibility for one’s choices, is “inauthenticity” = psychic incoherence + lack of integrity. Accordingly, the worst thing of all is in authenticity & unfreedom, so it is morally impermissible.

The very essence of good is choosing.It seems them, that man never chooses evil. A man “becomes a man” when he makes choice. When he makes choices he creates his own values. When he creates his own values, he creates his own being or essence.

Aesthetics

Another distinctive feature of the aesthetical views of existentialists lies in their use of the art forms, especially literature, drama, and painting, as media for communicating philosophical doctrines.

Fundamental Postulates of Existentialism

Permanence and Change-The existentialists, deny the preeminence of essence. They reject the notion that there is a predetermined nature for every human being. Man is not born with a rational soul which “forms the matter,” the body. Man has no essence at birth; he must create his own essence. And with Darwin, the existentialist would concur that no living beings will remain the same – all are in the process of changing. Consequently, existentialism is to be classified as one of the philosophies of change.

Existence precedes essence -Existentialism is a revolt against any kind of determinism and an affirmation of the free nature of man. They affirm that existence is prior to essence that man is fundamentally free to create his essences. As Black ham writes, “There is no creator of man. Man discovered himself. His existence came first; he now is in the process of determining his essence. Man first is, and then he defines himself.”

Freedom is identical with existence -Man, then, does not possess free will as a part of his essential mature, but rather he exists in a state of absolute freedom. None of the environmental or hereditary forces are considered strong enough to impair man’s freedom. The most important characteristic to existentialist freedom, then, is that it is absolute. It does not consist, as some traditional philosopher’s hold, in the freedom to choose among alternative goods. Man has no guideposts by which to make his choice. He must simply make choices and this choice will determine his being. He is completely responsible for his own decisions and the effects they will have upon himself and others.

Reason-Existentialism asserts that people actually make decisions based on the meaning to them rather than rationally.  Kierkegaard saw strong rationality as a mechanism humans use, their fear of being in the world: “If I can believe that I am rational and everyone else is rational then I have nothing to fear and no reason to feel anxious about being

The Absurd-When an individual’s consciousness, longing for order, collides with the Other’s lack of order, it is absurdity’

The notion of the Absurd contains the idea that there is no meaning to be found in the world beyond what meaning we give to it. This meaninglessness also encompasses the amorality or “unfairness” of the world.

Fact city-A denial of one’s own concrete past constitutes an inauthentic lifestyle, and the same goes for all other kinds of fact city. In other words, the origin of one’s projection will still have to be one’s fact city,

Alienation-Feelings of alienation can emerge from the recognition that one’s world has received its meaning from the crowd or others, and not from oneself, or that one is out of touch with one’s ‘inner self’. And our present “personal and collective mental instability follows from the peculiar form of alienation associated with alienation from the centre – alienation from meaning, value, purpose and vision, alienation from the roots of and reasons of our humanity.

Angst-Angst, sometimes called dread, anxiety or even anguish is a term that is common to many existentialist thinkers. It is generally held to be the experience of human freedom and responsibility… It is this condition of absolute freedom in which man finds himself and the responsibility entailed by it that creates the condition in man called anguish. The realization of this responsibility causes existential anguish.

Abandonment-By abandonment, the existentialist means that since God does not exist, man is left to his own deserts in crating himself and the kind of world in which he will live. There are no apriority values according to which he can make his decisions; there are no transcendental codes of behavior; there is no moral law in “nature” to be discovered and followed by man. Men are abandoned to his own decision – he must do what he wills; he must create his own essence.

Despair-Despair is another condition resulting from absolute freedom. Sartre describes this condition in these words. “It [despair] merely means that we limit ourselves to a radiance upon that which is within our wills, or within the sum of the probabilities which render our action possible.” Thus, when on makes a decision to act, he never can be sure what the result will be for him or others. Man must decide and act without hope.

Existential Crises- The phenomenon of anxiety – as an important characteristic of the existential crisis – is regarded as a rarity and has been described as “the manifestation of freedom in the face of self Experiencing anxiety individuates, hence ‘death’ as an issue readily lends itself to this crisis because only oneself can die one’s own death“.

Existentialism in education

The philosophy of existentialism has not displayed any particular interest in education. Therefore, it has been observed that the educational implications are derived and deduced from their philosophy rather than that are developed by existentialists

Just as its namesake sprang from a strong rejection of traditional philosophy, educational existentialism sprang from a strong rejection of the traditional, essentialist approach to education. Existentialism rejects the existence of any source of objective, authoritative truth about metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Instead, individuals are responsible for determining for themselves what is “true” or “false,” “right” or “wrong,” “beautiful” or “ugly.” For the existentialist, there exists no universal form of human nature; each of us has the free will to develop as we see fit.

Aims and Objectives of Education

Existentialists have been quite consistent in their recommendation of educational aims which are in harmony with their philosophic views… Existentialism is concerned principally with liberal education, freeing man from his isolation and his anonymity, freeing his mind from the confusions that prevent him from seeing his situations and his powers.

Prior to starting this general objective for education, Harper had pointed up that the existentialist wants to educate the “whole child,” not just one side. This “whole-child” concept has been utilized by others, among them the instrumentalists. But the existentialist proposes a more individualistic notion, that is, the “unfolding of the individual as a whole in the situation in which he finds himself. The existentialist emphasizes those situations such as tragedy, guilt, suffering, and, death which happen to the individual rather than the group. Nietzsche voices the same view against “the general all genuine aims for education” in which the individual is lost sight of as an individual.

According to existentialist, education should make a man subjective and should make him conscious for his individuality or ‘self’. Being self conscious he will recognize his ‘self’ and he will get an understanding of his ‘being’. Individuality lies on self-realization, a motivating force, from an existential perspective; a sense of self-identity is gained by how an individual relates to and values his or her relations. The purpose of education is to build character, to optimize potential and creativity and to enhance the quality of life through knowledge, and then from an existentialist perspective bureaucratization needs to be replaced by humanization.

Education is that which helps an individual to realize the best that he is capable of. In doing so education must help the individual to realize the ‘fact city’ (contingency) of his existence to face the categories of this fact city – dread, anguish, anxiety and fear – resolutely and courageously and finally prepare him to meet death with pleasure.

Education for happiness is a dangerous doctrine because there can be no happiness without pain and no ecstasy without suffering.” Therefore, existentialists would welcome an education, which throws open to children human suffering, misery, anguish and the dreadful responsibilities of adult life.

Every individual is unique. Education must develop in him this uniqueness. It must cater to individual differences Education must make pupil aware of the infinite possibilities of his freedom and the responsibilities he must bear in life.

The most important aim in education is the becoming of a human person as one who lives and makes decisions about what he will do and be. “Knowing” in the sense of knowing oneself, social relationship, and biological development, is all the parts of becoming. Human existence and the value related to it is the primary factory in education.

Education should train men to make better choices and also give the man the idea that since his choices are never perfect, the consequences cannot be predicted.

The ultimate aim of education is to make man conscious of his destination, to give understanding of his ‘being’ and ultimately lead him to his heavenly abode. So, it is clear that the existentialism accepts the principle of liberal education.

In short, the objective of education is to enable every individual to develop his unique qualities, to harness his potentialities and cultivate his individualities. It means the implication of existentialist formulations for child rearing education and counseling practices are many. Since existentialists behold human life as unique and emerging a child is to be recognized as a full person and not simple as an in complete adult. The practices by which the child is socialized varied from culture to culture.

Curriculum of Existentialism

To the extent that the staff, rather than the students, influence the curriculum, the humanities are commonly given tremendous emphasis. They are explored as a means of providing students with vicarious experiences that will help unleash their own creativity and self-expression. For example, rather than emphasizing historical events, existentialists focus upon the actions of historical individuals, each of whom provides possible models for the students’ own behavior. In contrast to the humanities, math and the natural sciences may be deemphasized, presumably because their subject matter would be considered “cold,” “dry,” “objective,” and therefore less fruitful to self-awareness. Moreover, vocational education is regarded more as a means of teaching students about themselves and their potential than of earning a livelihood. In teaching art, existentialism encourages individual creativity and imagination more than copying and imitating established models.

Although many existentialist educators provide some curricular structure, existentialism, more than other educational philosophies, affords students great latitude in their choice of subject matter. In an existentialist curriculum, students are given a wide variety of options from which to choose.

Existence of individuals must constitute the “core of studies” both in and out of school. It is worth noting, however, they do not demand that history, science, mathematics, and the like be thrown out of the curriculum. Their criticism is leveled at the impersonal, cold, and dry as dust approach to subject matter found in the schools. It is safe to assume, then that both traditional and modern subject matter would be found in the existentialist schools. But subject matter would not be learned “for its own sake”. The views that one should teach subject matter for its own sake, or for training the pupil’s intellect, or for adjusting the student to his environment are foreign to existentialist thought.

There is one feature of the existentialist curriculum which should differentiate it sharply from most existing elementary, secondary, and college programs. Most of these programs are devoid of content designed to offer the educed the opportunity to express his individuality in moral and artistic ways. The existentialist has made extensive use of the art forms as the media for conveying their beliefs about philosophical matters. It certainly would be in harmony with this emphasizing on values to provide the broadest possible curricular offerings in the value-laden area. Early in the elementary school, the child should be given the opportunity to express himself in any art from which he chooses. Also, the school program should afford myriads of opportunities, for the young pupil to make his own decisions in ethical matter. If this emphasis is continued throughout the secondary and college programs, then the student will be truly “educated to freedom.”

It seems, then, as suggested above, that the existentialist is not so much concerned with the actual courses or subjects in a curriculum as he is with what the teacher and) the pupil does with them. The exercise of existential freedom within a curriculum is more important than the curriculum. George Kneller takes each area of the curriculum, history, science, citizenship, music, art, dramatics, poetry, biography, and shows how the “existential approach” can be applied to each one. In each instance the student “lives” the subject or, better, becomes personally involved in the life of the material under consideration

The central place is given to ‘humanities’, poetry, drama, music, art, novels etc. as they exert the human impact in revealing man’s inherent quilt, sin, suffering, tragedy, death, late and love. Humanities have spiritual power. Art and Literature, they say should be taught, as they represent a priori (cause effect) power of human nature. Through these the students profit from the ideas and judgment of others. History should be taught in order to help the students to change the course of history and to mould future.

Scientific subjects and mathematics should be included in the curriculum but they should not be given more stress, as they deal with objective knowledge. ‘Self-knowledge precedes universal knowledge.

In short, they don’t believe in formal curriculum consisting of set of body of studies to be pursued but a curriculum, which features the riverberatory effect upon heart, and mind of passionate good reading and then personal contact. The curriculum should be chosen, sorted out and owned by the learner.

Instructional Methodology

Existentialist methods focus on the individual. Learning is self-paced, self directed, and includes a great deal of individual contact with the teacher, who relates to each student openly and honestly. In reality, the way in which subject matter is handled seems to be more important to the existentialist than the subject matter itself

To recognize the ‘individual differences’ and wish to have diverse curricula suiting the needs, abilities and aptitudes of the individual. Existentialist methods focus on the individual. Learning is self-paced, self directed, and includes a great deal of individual contact with the teacher, who relates to each student openly and honestly.

Perhaps the most significant assumption or underlying belief regarding educational methodology is that any teaching method must place the responsibility for choosing what to learn tend actually learning it upon the individual. This assumption is entirely in harmony with the existentialist’s insistence upon the absolute freedom of the individual. Obviously, on self-respecting existentialist would employ the traditional lecture-recite-assign-test method. He would reject with equal zeal the problem-solving method of instrumentalism because of its social emphasis. Any method which fosters group thinking or group action would be alien to the existentialist,

Perhaps, then, the only criterion for method is that the teacher show by his example that education is a concentration on personal freedom – one which encourages the student to accept the facts and beliefs which have relevance for him. Nietzsche states this position very vigorously in criticizing the traditional method (historic-scholastic method) of teaching the mother tongue: The historical method has become so universal in our time, that the living body of language is sacrificed for the sake of anatomical study …. The historical method may certainly be a considerable easier and more comfortable one for the teacher. It also seems to be compatible with a much lower grade of ability and, general, with a smaller display of energy and will on his part. But we shall find that this observation holds well in every department of pedagogical life. .

Similarly, a science should be considered a personal, human activity in which the student relives the great moment of discovery in the history of science. It should not be taught as an exercise in laboratory technique nor as a cold lifeless body of content to be mastered. The existential way to teach science is to have the students live it. This approach to teaching proposed by Kneller seems to be the same as that which Nietzsche implied in his criticism of traditional methods

Existentialists favor the Socratic Approach to teaching, “The existentialist favors the Socratic method, not so much because it involves ‘induction’ or the collection and analysis of all available evidence, nor because of its complementary process of ‘definition’, whereby general values are reached from particular instances; but chiefly because it is a method that tests the inner-life-as a stethoscope sounds the heart.” Socratic ‘Problem Method’ should be accepted if the problem originates in the life of the one who has to work out the solutions. But it is unacceptable if the problem is derived from the needs of the society. Like Socrates, ‘personal reading’ should be stressed.

They reject the group method, because in-group dynamic, the superiority of the group decision over individual decision is prominent. There is a danger of losing unique individualism and free choice. Methods of teaching must develop the creative abilities in children. The world and man reveal themselves by their undertakings

Concept of Teacher

The teacher’s role is to help students define their own essence by exposing them to various paths they may take in life and creating an environment in which they may freely choose their own preferred way. Since feeling is not divorced from reason in decision making, the existentialist demands the education of the whole person, not just the mind.

There are five characteristics of this ideal that are formulated by this existential framework. These include becoming more authentic, more spiritual, having a critical attitude, having a clear sense of personal identity and a developing empathetic awareness towards others.

Teachers are potentially able to offer a very valuable ‘other horizon’ which is able to assess qualitatively the understandings of students. Teachers can be most influential in the educational development of students’ spirituality if, through their interaction, ‘crises’ can be created. Teachers can be the learner’s ‘best enemy’), able to ‘wound’ most provokingly. This is somewhat like playing the ‘devil’s advocate’ in order to test and to clarify the understandings of others.

In order to exercise one’s freedom in an authentic manner it is also necessary that the teacher develop a critical attitude. Having a critical indicates that persons appreciate that they have a certain degree of unquestioned meanings that constitute how they make sense of, and give value and purpose to life. It is recognized that the teacher be necessarily a life-long learner…

The teacher’s characteristic of being ‘open’ to possibilities includes a willingness to allow others to re-evaluate those aspects of one’s understandings that can be articulated. If one chooses to ‘close’ oneself off from the criticisms of others, one is no longer teacher. Having’openness’ in this regard allows one to come to an understanding of self and others.

The teacher should become aware of how s/he relates to the entire curriculum. One is understood to be ‘in’ truth by critically examining and reflecting upon all which one understands. Therefore, the traditionally accepted meanings attached to various issues should be “touched with a hammer” both to ‘sound them out’ and to examine how the learner is attuned to them. Understanding, creating and choosing one’s personal identity – who one is and what one stands for – is a desirable characteristic of a teacher. Personal identity may reference historical, sociological, religious and biological frameworks,

An important characteristic of a teacher is that they have the ability to make judgments with regards to what is worthwhile and valuable in them and in others. This should be demonstrated by an empathetic awareness for others whom they are in-the-world-with…

Existentialists do not wish the teacher to be social minded umpire or provider of free social activity or a model personality to be limited, by the students. He must himself be a free personality, engaged in such relations and projects with individual students that they get the idea that they are too are free personalities. He may indirectly influence them about his values but he should impose his cherished values on them, test his values become the code of conduct for the students, who may begin to accept them without thought. Instead of expecting them to imitate he should help them to be ‘original’ and ‘authentic’.

His effort should be that students’ mind should have autonomous functioning so that they become free, charitable and self-moving. The role of teacher is very important because he is the creator of such as educational situation in which the student can establish contact with his self by becoming conscious of his self and can achieve self-realization.

The teacher must build positive relationships between himself and his students. He should avoid applying labels to children (such as ‘lazy’, ‘slow learner’ etc.) for individuals may indeed come to think of themselves this way. The teacher is also changing and growing as he guides the pupil in his discovery of self.

Concept of Student

The question “who should be educated?” would appear to be a rather simple one for the existentialist. One might expect him to answer to anyone who so desires should be given all the education he wants. This response is probably correct as far as education in general is concerned, since the broad meaning of education includes more than schooling. In other words a person can educate himself in many ways such as by reading, by working, and perhaps, most important, by living – by willing and acting.

However, some existentialists have been quite clear in advocating a culture and education for the elite. Nietzsche was very outspoken in his scorn of “equality of opportunity” for all the children of all the people. The education of the masses cannot, therefore, be our aim; but rather the education of a few picked men for great and lasting works…… What is called the “education of the masses” cannot be accomplished except wit difficulty; and even if a system of universal compulsory education be applied, they can only be realized outwardly: those individuals of lower levels where, generally speaking, the masses come into contact with culture – all these levels can scarcely be reached by direct means…..In this context Nietzsche was not peaking only of college or university education but of the lower levels, elementary and secondary. He felt the public education, which attempted to educate the masses, was bound to fall short of the aim of true education simply because the masses were involved.

The existentialists want to give full freedom to the child. But the child should know the nature of his ‘self’ and recognize his being and convert imperfection into perfection.     They do not want the child to become selfish, autocratic and irresponsible. Freedom is needed only for natural development. Education should be provided according to the child’s powers and the needs. The relation of the child with his ‘self’ should be strengthened rather than severed. The child has to make ‘choices’ and decisions.

Child thrives better when relieved from intense competition, harsh discipline, and fear of failure. Thus each child can grow to understand his own needs and values and take charge of the experiences for changing him. In this way self-evaluation is the beginning and end of the learning process, as learning proceeds, child is freely growing, fearless, understanding individual. Primary emphasis must always be on the child, as learner and not on the learning programmed. Child needs positive evaluation, not labels.

Concept of School

From what has been said about the role individuality should play in the development an application of educational methodology it is quite evident that none of the traditional agencies of education (family, Church, and state) can claim the primary right to educate.” it was quite clear that the individual, the personification of absolute freedom, is the sole “agency” responsible for creating his own essence or being. To be consistent, the existentialist cannot permit any agency “outside the individual” to usurp this primary right and responsibility

The school should provide an atmosphere where the individuals develop in a healthy way. Any subject in school (even extra activities like athletics, music etc.) can present existential situations for teaching and the development of human beings. The aim of school tasks should be to nurture self-discipline and cultivate self-evaluation.

Mass teaching and mass testing is not advocated in schools. The schedule must be flexible and open. Democratic ideals should pervade the school. Democracy must be the soil in which the individual grows. It should be the democracy of unique individuals who value differences and respect one another. Self-government, pupil participation in planning and the encouragement of a free atmosphere characterize the school.

Mechanization and impersonality should be counteracted in school. Student’s timetables and work programmers are computerized. And thus the relationships between the individual students and the school programmed become an impersonal one. Besides this, the use of programmed instruction, teaching machines and other equipments tend to decrease the personal contact between teachers and pupils. This impersonality is a hazard to the individual development and growth of the child’s personality. Concern and respect for the individual student should be a feature of the school.

Nietzsche’s attack on public education is based upon his conviction that the public schools in his country destroyed individual freedom and responsibility and replaced them with a state-enforced conformity. Since mass education has been initiated by the state or in some instances by the Church, many existentialists feel that both of these organizations have overstepped their bounds. Nietzsche rightly comments “But who will persuade me that today’s (public) school have an absolute right to their existence? … I am not convinced that in itself the school is necessarily a good thing. It is at best a benevolent, well meaning concentration camp. It denies in its actual make up the very emancipation and enfranchisement of youth that it is established to cherish…. Deny, if you can, the dreadful similarity between the mass education of children in a school and the mass production of goods in a factory. ‘”.

Certainly, the atheistic existentialist has an additional reason for denying the rights of the Church in educational matters, since he considers the entire theological-administrative structure of the churches as a grand and fraudulent imposition on the individual’s freedom of choice and action. Such misuse of education can only be resisted by the existentialist.

The family, too, should not be considered the chief agency of education. The authoritarian structure of families has crushed the individuality of the young. Simply because the parents have provided the biological components of the child, they are not entitled to dictate what the child shall make of himself.

Consequently, we are left with only one conclusion: the individual is the sole “agency “of education. The family, Church, and state should provide an atmosphere conducive to the individual’s creation of his own essence. Their only role in the educative process in an auxiliary one – a service role. These agencies should cooperate in “freeing the individual” from the artificial restraints of organized society so that he will be able to choose and act as he wishes.

Evaluation of Existentialism

The evaluation of existentialism has been quite negative. Some even view it as an ant philosophical movement. Others, however, do not take such a dismal view of it. James Collins believes that it is a challenging and instructive philosophy. It embodies a legitimate continuation of several important European traditions and addresses itself to vital problems of the greatest contemporary moment for both philosophy and life . Perhaps the somewhat morbid popular interest in the personality of Sartre may be advanced as an excuse for not giving careful hearing to the arguments of the existentialists

Limitations

After studying the philosophy of Existentialism, the question will arise in anybody’s mind: how can the aims, curricula and methods in a school depend upon the individual’s choice and freedom? Organization of such a programmed would be impossible and bring about chaos.

The teacher’s individual relationship and close understanding of every pupil’s personality would require a great deal of time and effort.

The concepts of ‘Being’, ‘meaning’, ‘Person’ are not very clear and appear nebulous. It is not easy to build up an educational programmed when the terminology for the objectives of the educational process is not clear…

Educational standards and practices that manipulate the child’s behaviors in an arbitrary manner violate the principle of free choice.

Many teaching practices, testing procedures, and bureaucratic system of classifying children may be questioned.

Teachers who have learned to provide existential encounters for their students enable the learners, “to create meanings in a cosmos devoid of objective meaning to find reasons for being in a society with fewer and fewer open doors.”

There are some major areas of conflict between atheistic existentialism and traditional. The former’s complete denial of any forces outside the “human situation” and its rejection of any essential characteristic in man are contrary to traditional metaphysical beliefs. The radical subjectivity of existentialist epistemology, ethics, and aesthetics is also not in harmony with both traditional and many modern views of these issues.

Other limitations of existentialism lessen the acceptability of this school of thought as a philosophy for modern man. The most glaring one seems to be the naïve view the existentialists take of the “social realities” of the modern industrial, urban world. They offer no social theory for solving the complex problems of our scientific age Thus proposals for “individual living “ might appeal to the hermit or the frontiersman but they are of little help to the people who must spend their lives in large cities, work for large companies, worship in large congregations, and even recreate in crowds.. Man is responsible, not only for himself but for his fellowmen.

Yet another weakness might be noted in existentialist philosophy which limits its application to the modern world, namely, the neglect of the scientific mode of knowing in their general theory of knowledge. After all, this is the “age of science” and complete philosophy of life cannot relegate the philosophy of science to a position of minor importance.

As an educational philosophy, existentialism, at least in its present form, does not provide an adequate basis for educational theory. Perhaps this state of affairs is due to the fact that most existentialists have given no serious consideration to the development of the educational implications of their fundamental philosophical tenets.

There is no place in existentialist philosophy for social theory as developed within the other philosophies The existentialist often is accused of being “antisocial” in his behavior as well as in his philosophy. If existentialists have no theory of society, it might be more accurate to ask how they view other men. First, they would grant to others the same existential freedom which they demand for themselves. That is, man is never to be viewed as a means but rather as an end.

The school itself has become a place where the individual is “socialized” so that he can be a good group member, a good citizen rather than a good person. If existentialism does nothing else but bring about a proper balance between the individual and society, it will have merited the praise of educators.

The existential view of development is not without its critics, many of whom view of theory and its practices as representing a neurotic, narcissistic philosophy of pain and anguish.

Merits

In contrast, existentialism’s protagonists see it as the only hope for human survival as in existentialism.   Since existentialism is optimistic, the preaches the doctrine of action and emphasizes the concept of freedom, responsibility and choice, it has exerted an increasing appeal to the educator, who has been shown the new horizons

Interest is directed on the ‘man’ – his genuine or authentic self, his choices made with full responsibility of consequences, and freedom. It describes and diagnoses human weaknesses, limitations and conflicts

Man cannot be explained by reason as the idealists emphasize. It traces the origin of all these and anticipates that man will overcome them. These arise; they say when a man comes to have a sense of meaninglessness of his life.

They do not want man to be philistine (one whose interests are material and common place) or mediocre who submerges himself. They want the ‘transcendence’ of man, which means that he should become more and more ‘authentic’.

In short, Existentialism is an attitude and outlook that emphasizes human existence, the qualities of individual persons rather than man in abstract of nature and the world in general. Education, therefore, must edify and enrich man’s mind so that it may be respectable in his own eyes and in the eyes of the, others. It should help him to make him human.

References.

Ayer, A. J. (1990). The Meaning of Life and Other Essays. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.

Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of Meaning. Cambridge, Massachusetts & London: Harvard University Press.

Chatter, M. F. (2000). Spirituality as struggle: Poetics, experience and the place of the spiritual in educational encounter. International Journal of Children’s Spirituality, 5(2), 193-201.

Cooper, D. E. (1999). Existentialism: A reconstruction. (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.

Delors, J. (1998). Learning: the treasure within. (2nd ed.): UNESCO Publishing/The Australian National Commission for UNESCO.

Education Queensland. (1999). The Next Decade: A discussion about the future of Queensland State Schools. Brisbane: Education Queensland.

Heidegger, M. (1996). Being and Time (Joan Stambaugh, Trans.). Albany: State University of New York Press.

 

 

Dr. V.K. Maheshwari, Former Principal

K.L.D.A.V(P.G) College, Roorkee, India.

“Study the past if you would define the future.I am not one who was born in the possession of knowledge; I am one who is fond of antiquity, and earnest in seeking it there. Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” (Confucius, Analects)

Since philosophy is the art which teaches us how to live, and since children need to learn it as much as we do at other ages, why do we not instruct them in it? But in truth I know nothing about the philosophy of education except this: that the greatest and the most important difficulty known to human learning seems to lie in that area which treats how to bring up children and how to educate them. – (de Montaigne, on teaching Philosophy of Education)

Before analyzing the educational implications of general philosophy, we should know the concept of “Philosophy” and “Education”. Each one of us has a personal philosophy which we apply consciously and unconsciously in our daily life

The literal meaning of philosophy is the love of wisdom which is derived from the Greek word “Philos” (Love) and Sophia (Wisdom). Wisdom does not merely mean knowledge. It is a continuous seeking of insight into basic realities – the physical world, life, mind, society, knowledge and values.

When we speak of philosophy we use a term which may be viewed in two senses. The first of these is that of  the word itself which literally means  “ love of wisdom”. But to love wisdom does not necessarily make one a philosopher. It is this second sense of the word which makes the philosopher an active person; one who seeks answers, rather than one who simply sits around engaging in idle and frivolous speculation.

Today, most philosophers are actively concerned with life. THEY SEEK ANSWERS TO BASIC PROBLEMS. Thus we find that philosophers are doing as well as thinking, and it is their thinking which guides their doing. What they do is rooted in the search for answers to certain types of problems and the tentative answers they have formulated.

The three great problems of philosophy are the problems of reality, knowledge, and value-Philosophy deals with these in three aspects-

What Aspects- deals with Meta-physics

Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that goes beyond the realms of science. It is concerned with answering the questions about identity and the world. The name is derived from the Greek words, Meta which means beyond or after, and Physika which means physics. Aristotle, one of the most well-known philosophers, acknowledged Thales as the first known meta physician. The main branches of metaphysics are ontology, natural theology and universal science

How Aspects- deals with Epistemology

 

Epistemology, from the Greek words episteme (knowledge) and logos (word/speech) is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature, origin, and scope of knowledge.

A branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of knowledge. Theory of knowledge: the inquiry into what knowledge is, what can be known, and what lies beyond our understanding; the investigation into the origin, structure, methods, and validity of justification and knowledge; the study of the interrelation of reason, truth, and experience. Epistemology investigates the origin, structure, methods, and integrity of knowledge. The study of knowledge. In particular, epistemology is the study of the nature, scope, and limits of human knowledge

Logic:

Logic (from Classical Greek λόγος (logos), originally meaning the word, or what is spoken, but coming to mean thought or reason) is most often said to be the study of arguments,

Logic is the science of exact thought. The systematic treatment of the relation of ideas. A study of methods distinguishing valid thinking   which is fallacious:  The study of the proper methods of thinking and reasoning among the branches of philosophy, logic is concerned with the various forms of reasoning and arriving at genuine conclusions. It includes the system of statements and arguments. It is now divided into mathematical logic and philosophical logic. It tries to avoid the imaginary or assumptions without real logical proof.

What ought to be aspects -deals with Axiology:

The Study of Value: the study of value; the investigation of its nature, criteria, and metaphysical status. More often than not, the term “value theory” is used instead of “axiology” in contemporary discussions even though the term “theory of value” is used with respect to the value or price of goods and services in economics. .  It’s the general theory of value, the nature of values, the different kinds of value, specific values worthy of possession, the inquiry into the nature, criteria, and metaphysical status of value. Axiology, in turn, is divided into two main parts: ethics and esthetics.

Ethics:

Ethics is a general term for what is often described as the “science (study) of morality”. It is concerned with questions on morality and values and how they apply to various situations. It can be divided into the branches of meta-ethics, normative and applied ethics. Ethics seeks to understand the basis of morals, how they develop and how they are and should be followed

Aesthetics:

The philosophy of art. Aesthetics deals with sense, perception and appreciation of beauty Concerned with questions like why we find certain things beautiful, what makes things great art, so on. The study of value in the arts or the inquiry into feelings, judgments, or standards of beauty and related concepts. Philosophy of art is concerned with judgments of sense, taste, and emotion. It broadly includes everything to do with appreciating of art, culture and nature. The practice of defining, criticizing and appreciating art and art forms is based on aesthetics.

BASIC PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION

IDEALISM

Idealism is a philosophical approach that has as its central tenet that ideas are the only true reality, the only thing worth knowing. In a search for truth, beauty, and justice that is enduring and everlasting; the focus is on conscious reasoning in the mind.

The main tenant of idealism is that ideas and knowledge are the truest reality.  Many things in the world change, but ideas and knowledge are enduring.  Idealism was often referred to as “idea-ism”. Idealists believe that ideas can change lives.  The most important part of a person is the mind. It is to be nourished and developed.

From this very general philosophical position, the Idealist would tend to view the Learner as a microscopic mind, the Teacher as a paradigmatic self, the Curriculum as the subject matter of symbol and idea (emphasizing literature, history, etc.) The educational approach of this philosophy is of a holistic nature.  In which self-realization and character development is strongly supported.  The idealist feels that with the growth of a fine moral character as well as personal reflection, wisdom is gained.  Information across curriculum

PRAGMATISM

Pragmatism in education came into prominence to fulfill an obvious need in the educational thought of America. With education becoming available to all men rather than to a select few, the country was searching for a way of viewing the educational process other than through the framework provided by the older “elitist” philosophies of You see by his what I meant when I called pragmatism a mediator and reconciler……. She has in fact no prejudices whatever, no obstructive dogmas, and no rigid canons of what shall count as proof. She is completely genial. She will entertain any hypothesis, she will consider any evidence. It follows that in the religious field she is at a great advantage over both positivistic empiricism, with its anti-theological bias, and over religious rationalism, with its exclusive interest in the remote, the noble, the simple, and the abstract in the way of conception.— William James

HUMANISM

A system of thought that centers on humans and their values, capacities, and worth.

The word “humanism” has a number of meanings, and because authors and speakers often don’t clarify which meaning they intend, those trying to explain humanism can easily become a source of confusion. Fortunately, each meaning of the word constitutes a different type of humanism — the different types being easily separated and defined by the use of appropriate adjectives.

Literary Humanism is a devotion to the humanities or literary culture.

Renaissance Humanism is the spirit of learning that developed at the end of the Middle Ages with the revival of classical letters and a renewed confidence in the ability of human beings to determine for themselves truth and falsehood.

Cultural Humanism is the rational and empirical tradition that originated largely in ancient Greece and Rome, evolved throughout European history, and now constitutes a basic part of the Western approach to science, political theory, ethics, and law.

Philosophical Humanism is any outlook or way of life centered on human need and interest. Sub-categories of this type include Christian Humanism and Modern Humanism.

Modern Humanism, also called Naturalistic Humanism, Scientific Humanism, Ethical Humanism and Democratic Humanism is defined by one of its leading proponents, Corliss Lamont, as “a naturalistic philosophy that rejects all supernaturalism and relies primarily upon reason and science, democracy and human compassion.” Modern Humanism has a dual origin, both secular and religious, and these constitute its sub-categories.

Secular Humanism is an outgrowth of 18th century enlightenment rationalism and 19th century free thought. Many secular groups, , advocate this philosophy.

Religious Humanism emerged out of Ethical Culture, Unitarianism, and Universalism. Today, many Unitarian- Universalist congregations and all Ethical Culture societies describe themselves as humanist in the modern sense.

EXISTENTIALISM

Just as its namesake sprang from a strong rejection of traditional philosophy, educational existentialism sprang from a strong rejection of the traditional, essentialist approach to education. Existentialism rejects the existence of any source of objective, authoritative truth about metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Instead, individuals are responsible for determining for themselves what is “true” or “false,” “right” or “wrong,” “beautiful” or “ugly.” For the existentialist, there exists no universal form of human nature; each of us has the free will to develop as we see fit.

Existentialism is the most individualistic of all modern philosophies. Its overriding concern is with the individual and its primary value is the absolute freedom of the person, who is only what he makes himself to be, and who is the final and exclusive arbiter of the values he freely determines for himself. Great emphasis is placed on art, on literature, and the humanistic studies, for it is in these areas that man finds himself and discovers what values he will seek to attain.

Existentialism represents a protest against the rationalism of traditional philosophy, against misleading notions of the bourgeois culture, and the dehumanizing values of industrial civilization. Since alienation, loneliness and self-estrangement constitute threats to human personality in the modern world, existential thought has viewed as its cardinal concerns a quest for subjective truth, a reaction against the ‘negation of Being’ and a perennial search for freedom..

PERENNIALISM

Perennialism philosophy of education is a very conservative and inflexible philosophy of education. Students are taught to reason through structured lessons and drills. They are stressing reading, writing and arithmetic in education but the decline of the music and art. Perennialism philosophy of education is what helps in educators is to equip them with “universal knowledge

Perennialists believe in acquiring understandings about the great ideas of civilization. These ideas have the potential for solving problems in any era. The focus is to teach ideas that are everlasting, to seek enduring truths which are constant, not changing, as the natural and human worlds at their most essential level, do not change. Teaching these unchanging principles is critical. Humans are rational beings, and their minds need to be developed. Thus, cultivation of the intellect is the highest priority in a worthwhile education. The demanding curriculum focuses on attaining cultural literacy, stressing students’ growth in enduring disciplines. The loftiest accomplishments of humankind are emphasized– the great works of literature and art, the laws or principles of science

REALISM

From this very general philosophical position, the Realist would tend to view the Learner as a sense mechanism, the Teacher as a demonstrator, the Curriculum as the subject matter of the physical world (emphasizing mathematics, science, etc.), the Teaching Method as mastering facts and information, and the Social Policy of the school as transmitting the settled knowledge of Western civilization. The realist would favor a school dominated by subjects of the here-and-now world, such as math and science. Students would be taught factual information for mastery. The teacher would impart knowledge of this reality to students or display such reality for observation and study. Classrooms would be highly ordered and disciplined, like nature, and the students would be passive participants in the study of things. Changes in school would be perceived as a natural evolution toward a perfection of order.

For the realist, the world is as it is, and the job of schools would be to teach students about the world. Goodness, for the realist, would be found in the laws of nature and the order of the physical world. Truth would be the simple correspondences of observation. The Realist believes in a world of Things or Beings (metaphysics) and in truth as an Observable Fact. Furthermore, ethics is the law of nature or Natural Law and aesthetics is the reflection of Nature

NATURALISM

Naturalism is a concept that firmly believes that ultimate reality lies in the nature of the matter. Matter is considered to be supreme and mind is the functioning of the brain that is made up of matter. The whole universe is governed by laws of nature and they are changeable. It’s through our sense that we are able to get the real knowledge. The senses works like real gateways of knowledge and exploration is the method that helps in studying nature. Naturalism is a term loosely applied in educational theory to systems of training that are not dependent on schools and books but on manipulation of the actual life of student. Naturalism is an artistic movement advocating realistic description: in art or literature, a movement or school advocating factual or realistic description of life, including its less pleasant aspects. In literature, the doctrine rejecting spiritual explanations of world: a system of thought that rejects all spiritual and supernatural explanations of the world and holds that science is the sole basis of what can be known. a belief that all religious truth is derived from nature and natural causes, and not from revelation

MARXISM

Communist educators are in perfect accord that the ultimate purpose of education is “strengthening the communistic state and the building of a Classless society.” All other objectives are subsidiary. This central aim supplies the rationale for the curriculum, teaching methods, teacher-pupil freedom and discipline in the schools, which agency shall have responsibility for education, and who shall be educated

In the Marxist system, discipline is conceived as a virtue essential to achieve the goals of Communism. The school must insist on discipline not only because it is necessary for successful study and learning but also because it is necessary for life.

The equalization of educational opportunity is one aspect of the Communist program which has been most successful All citizens have the “guaranteed” right to free, universal, compulsory primary and secondary education

In Communist countries the state is regarded as the sole educational agency. The leaders of the revolution recognized that education was the most powerful weapon at their disposal in their efforts to effect the radical change in society. In fact, they viewed education as the only means of transforming an individualistic capitalistic society to a socialistic, classless one. The ultimate aim of education was bluntly stated as “strengthening the state and the building of a classless society.” All other goals are subsidiary to this final one

THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATION

Etymologically, ‘educahon’ is derived from “educare” which means ‘to lead out’ or “to drawout’. In a broad sense, education refers to an act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character or physical ability of an individual. Education in this sense never ends, we truly learn from experience throughout our lives.

Webster defines education as the process of educating or teaching (now that’s really useful, isn’t it?) Educate is further defined as “to develop the knowledge, skill, or character of…” Thus, from these definitions, we might assume that the purpose of education is to develop the knowledge, skill, or character of students. Unfortunately, this definition offers little unless we further define words such as develop, knowledge, and character. .

This is hardly a new argument. In ancient Greece, Socrates argued that education was about drawing out what was already within the student. (As many of you know, the word education comes from the Latin e-ducere meaning “to lead out.”) At the same time, the Sophists, a group of itinerant teachers, promised to give students the necessary knowledge and skills to gain positions with the city-state.

The definition of education in common usage, that education is merely the delivery of knowledge, skills and information from teachers to students, is inadequate to capture what is really important about being and becoming educated.

The proper definition of education is the process of becoming an educated person. Being an educated person means you have access to optimal states of mind regardless of the situation you are in. You are able to perceive accurately, think clearly and act effectively to achieve self-selected goals and aspirations.

Education is a process of cognitive cartography, mapping your experiences and finding a variety of reliable routes to optimal states when you find yourself in non-optimal states.

The idea that the definition of education is the delivery of knowledge, skills and information from teachers to students is misguided. Education does not mean mere schooling. Education refers not only to a process in and out of classroom. To become educated is to learn to become a person.

The common definition of education is simply wrong when you consider how education actually occurs. A proper definition of education will have to cover these four important aspects of how we become educated:

• The necessity of having and manipulating knowledge, skills and information
• The helpfulness of teachers, without requiring them
• The constant need to see through the inherent illusions that arise from our unconscious thought processes, and
• Our ability to influence our states of mind

It is difficult to define education without implying an educational philosophy, and evidence of the intimate relation between philosophy and education.

RELATIONSHIP IN BETWEEN PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION

Since philosophy is the art which teaches us how to live, and since children need to learn it as much as we do at other ages, why do we not instruct them in it? .. But in truth I know nothing about the philosophy of education except this: that the greatest and the most important difficulty known to human learning seems to lie in that area which treats how to bring up children and how to educate them.
(de Montaigne, On teaching Philosophy of Education)

Interdependence of philosophy and education is an essentiality for human development .both represents two side of a coin, both are equally important. PHILOSOPHY DETEMINES THE VIEW OF LIFE WHILE EDUCATION DETERMINES THE WAY OF LIFE.. They are so interlocked that without the one the existence of the other is beyond comprehension.

The inter-dependence of philosophy and education is clearly seen from the fact that the great philosophers of all times have also been great educators and their philosophy is reflected in their educational systems.

This inter-dependence can be better understood by analyzing the implications of philosophical principles in the field of education.

It is interesting to note in this connection that John Dewey defines philosophy simply as a general theory of education. But many other philosophers feel that it is more than this

If described so generally as to make room for most varieties of educational theory, education would have to be defined somewhat as follows: and activity or endeavor in which the more mature of human society deal with the less mature, in order to achieve a greater maturity in them and contribute thereby to the improvement of human life.

The close relationship between philosophy and education led to the emergence of a new branch of knowledge ,Philosophy of education which traditionally assumed the burden of formulating goals , norms ,and  standards by which to conduct the educative process,. It assures the “educator not only of the substance of the programmed of the schools but of its formal validity”.

In spite of variance amongst diverse philosophies of education-empirical-non empirical, speculative-normative, commonsense-critical and a host of other combinations-all seem to be recognizing “the importance of interest and individual differences”.

Philosophy is theoretical and speculative; education is practical. Philosophy asks questions, examining factors of reality and experience, many of which are involved in the educative process; whereas the actual process of education is a matter of actively dealing with these factors, i.e., teaching, organizing programs, administering organizations, building curricula, etc.

In the words of Ross “philosophy is the contemplative side while education is the active side”. Philosophy deals with the ends while education deals with the means and techniques of achieving those means.

Philosophy of education is the application of philosophical ideas to educational problems. It is not only a way of looking at ideas but also of how to use them in the best way. Therefore, it can be said that philosophy is the theory while education is the practice. Practice unguided by theory is aimless, inconsistent and inefficient just as theory which is not ultimately translatable into practice is useless and confusing.

Educational philosophy depends on formal philosophy because most of the major problems of education are in fact philosophical problems. Like general philosophy, educational philosophy is speculative, prescriptive critical or analytic.

There are two chief ways in which philosophy and education are relate.

(1) Philosophy yields a comprehensive understanding of reality, a world view, which when applied to educational practice lends direction and methodology which are likely to be lacking otherwise. By way of reciprocation,

(2) the experience of the educator in nurturing the young places him in touch with phases of reality which are considered in making philosophic judgments. Because of this, those who are actively engaged in educating can advise philosophers abut certain matters of facts. That is to say, that while philosophy is a guide to educational practice, education as a field of investigation yields certain data as a basis for philosophic judgments.

All philosophies are concerned with the nature of the self. As has been inquired just above, they ask, is the self a physical, social, or spiritual unit? Whatever answer is given will go far in determining a person’s attitude toward the pupil, in case education in one of his major interests. If the self is a physical unit, then pupils are biological organisms. If the self is a physical unit, then pupils are biological organisms. If it is a social unit, then pupils are little pieces of society. If it is a spiritual unit, then pupils are soul’s wit destinies which outreach both biological and social processes.

Philosophy is concerned, among other things, with value; education also must necessarily deal with value, more than most other social institutions. How does man possess or realize value? Or do values come to us without effort, like an inheritance? Such questions as these are most relevant to education. Value thinking in philosophy is thus related to education in another important way.

Educations must have objectives if it is to be effective; otherwise it descends to the level of aimless activity which is the antithesis of educative experiences. But how can education have valid objectives unless these are formulated within the context of responsible philosophy.

The education will scarcely stop before determining what his philosophizing implies for the educational process itself. It the pupil is a biological unit only, and the context within which objectives are set is purely naturalistic, then the process of educating will be a purely natural process, in no sense transcending the natural order. But if the pupil is a spiritual being and the objectives of education are anchored in immortality and an ultimate divine society, then  the process by which man is educated must be consistently and carefully refined so that personality is always treated as personality, never as mechanism or near-personality, and so that ceilings are not placed above individuals or societies inhibiting them in reaching out toward the ultimate.

Of course in all of the connections between philosophy and education the certainty of transfer is by no means assured. One educator may enjoy theorizing and be poor in performance of effective practice which grows out of his theory. Another may be at home only in concrete practice, confirmed in the practice. Both of these attitudes as inadequate and make the student shun equally the possibilities of becoming a theorist who cannot practice his theory or a practitioner who assumes that he can practice without any theory. For there can be no clear and sharp separation between theory and practice. No teacher however effective in practice can avoid assumptions, conscious or unconscious, as to what it is that he is about. These assumptions, it should be pointed out, are the material of theory, not of practice, and they need both to be examined critically and to be related to other assumptions in the largest context of belief, in order to be adequate as a basis for practice. Furthermore no theory is fully expressed until it is expressed in practice. Not being an end in itself, theory becomes the evident enjoyment of the dilettante when pursued without responsible reference to practice. It might be said that there can be no practice with out thinking ,  practice always merges into action and action emerges out of thought.

Education and philosophy are inseparable because the ends of education are the ends of philosophy i.e., wisdom; and the means of philosophy is the means of education i.e. inquiry, which alone can lead to wisdom. Any separation of philosophy and education inhibits inquiry and frustrates wisdom.

Education involves both the world of ideas and the world of practical activity; good ideas can lead to good practice and good practices reinforce good ideas. In order to behave intelligently in the educational process, education needs direction and guidance which philosophy can provide. Hence philosophy is not only a professional tool for the educator but also a way of improving the quality of life because it helps us to gain a wider and deeper perspective on human existence and the world around us.

The chief task of philosophy is to determine what constitutes good life whereas the main task of education is how to make life worth living. So philosophy and education are mutually re-constructive. They give and take from each other. Philosophy deals with the goals and essentials of good life while education provides the means to achieve those goals of good life. In this sense philosophy of education is a distinct but not a separate discipline. It takes its contents from education and its methods from philosophy.

Instructional pedagogy , depends quite directly upon the  nature of knowledge, which depends quite directly upon the nature of man. The aims of education, the role of teacher, The concept of student, the curriculum, the concept of discipline, importance and involvement of social agencies ,etc have determining influence of Philosophy .

If different areas of education are observed In relation to philosophy we will conclude that philosophy is an essentiality for a productive and progressive outlook on education Rusk had rightly commented’ from every angle of educational problem comes thus the demand for a philosophical basis of the subject….There is no escape from a philosophy of life and of education.

REFERANCES

Brameld, Theodore-,Toward a Reconstructed Philosophy of Education. Newyork; Dryden Press.

Broundy, Harry S., Building a Philosophy of Education. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. : Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1961..

Butler, J. Donald, Four Philosophies and Their……… Education and Religion. New York : Harper & Row.

Herbart, J.F., The Science of Education. Boston : D.C.Heath & Company, 1902.

Wild, John, “Education and human Society : A Realistic View,” Modern Philosophies and Education. National Society for the study of Education, Fifty-fourth Yearbook, Part I. Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1955.

Broudy, Harry S., Building a Philosophy of Education. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1961..

Frank Thilly, “A History of philosophy”, Central Publishing House, Allahabad.

John Dewey, “Reconstruction in Philosophy,” p-38. London, University of London Press Ltd. 1921.

Rusk, R.R., “Philosophical Basis of Education” p-68, footnote, London, University of London Press, 1956.

 

From the solemn gloom of the temple children run out to sit in the dust, God watches them play and forgets the priest” -Rabindranath Tagore

Naturalism is a concept that firmly believes that ultimate reality lies in the nature of the matter. Matter is considered to be supreme and mind is the functioning of the brain that is made up of matter. The whole universe is governed by laws of nature and they are changeable. It’s through our sense that we are able to get the real knowledge. The senses works like real gateways of knowledge and exploration is the method that helps in studying nature

BASIC CONCEPT OF NATURALISM

Naturalism is a term loosely applied in educational theory to systems of training that are not dependent on schools and books but on manipulation of the actual life of educand .Naturalism is an artistic movement advocating realistic description: in art or literature, a movement or school advocating factual or realistic description of life, including its less pleasant aspects. In literature, The  doctrine rejecting spiritual explanations of world: a system of thought that rejects all spiritual and supernatural explanations of the world and holds that science is the sole basis of what can be known. a belief that all religious truth is derived from nature and natural causes, and not from revelation

THEORITICAL RATIONALE OF NATURALISM

“Naturalism is the doctrine which separates nature from God, subordinates spirit to matter and sets up unchangeable laws as supreme”.

METAPHYSICAL POSITION

Concept of God

Naturalist God is within Nature .He is not all nature nor more than  nature .He is that particular structure in nature which is sufficiently limited to be described as making possible the realization of value and as the foundation of all values

The Concept of Self

The self seems to be an organization of experience in each individual which is constantly developing and changing.. The human self is seen by naturalism as an offshoot of Nature, and not as springing from beyond Nature.

Naturalists  are not much interested in the concept of soul of man. According to them ,man is the  child of nature; in the evolutionary processes that have been at work in the universe so far, he is on the very crest of the wave.

EPISTEMOLOGICAL POSITION  OF NATURALISM

In terms of theory of knowledge, Naturalism  highlight the value of scientific knowledge,  through specific observation, accumulation and generalization . It  also lays emphasis on the empirical and experimental knowledge. Naturalism  also lay stress on sensory training as senses are the gateways to learning

THE LOGIC OF NATURALISM

Simple induction is the logic of naturalism. Simple induction involve careful observation of Nature, accurate description of what is observed, and caution in formulating generalizations

AXIOLOGICAL POSITION OF NATURALISM

Naturalism believes that. Nature is versatile. Instincts. drives and impulses need to be expressed rather than repressed. According to them, there is no absolute good or evil in the world. Values of life are created by the human needs.

Ethical Value-Ethics of naturalism is hedonistic, as long as this characterization is accompanied by the caution that in the conscious though at least of many naturalists the highest good is the most highly refined and abiding pleasure.

Aesthetic Value-The principles enunciated above regarding the ethical values of naturalism hold also for aesthetic values. They, too, are rooted in nature and do not depend on any source outside nature for their validation. Nature itself provides the criterion for beauty.

Religious value-The prime imperative of a naturalistic religion is that its adherents ally themselves with the value-realizing force in Nature and help to bring into existence values which are not actual in the present.

Social Value-Rousseau’s naturalism rooted man in Nature rather than society. So much did he regard man as a child of Nature, as over against society, that he proposed in his Emile to keep Emile away from society until adolescences.. Individual man, he contended, is not a man unless he is free; if he is in bondage, he is less than a man.

NATURALISM IN EDUCATION

We are born weak, we need strength; helpless, we need aid; foolish, we need reason. All that we lack at birth, all that we need when we come to man’s estate, is the gift of education.

~Jean Jacques Rousseau

Naturalism as a philosophy of education was developed in the 18th century. It is based on the assumption that nature represents the wholeness of reality. Nature, itself, is a total system that contains and explains all existence including human beings and human nature

Education must conform to the natural processes of growth and mental development. This root principle, already touched upon, stems from a concern to understand the nature of the child and follows from naturalism’s conception of the pupil. It is the make up of the learner that determines the character of the learning process, not the designs of teachers of the learner or there simply will be no learning.

Education should be pleasurable; for children have a good time when they are doing things which the present development of their physical and mental equipment makes them ready to do. This readiness for specific kinds of activity is evidenced by their interest. Consequently, interest in a subject and interest in ways of doing things are guides to parents and teachers, both as to subjects of study and methods of teaching for which children have a natural readiness at any given stage of development.

Education should engage the spontaneous self-activity of the child. As already noted, the child educates himself in great measure, most of his knowledge is base on what he discovers in his own active relations with things and people. Especially is this the case with our perceptions, developed almost completely by our own unconscious efforts in early childhood but constituting the machinery for a high percentage of our adult experiences. Adults are foolish, therefore, if they do not use this native self-activity as an ally in their teaching. The way to do this, Spencer advised, is to tell the learner as little as possible and induce him to discover as much as possible.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION

The naturalistic hierarchy of educational objectives represents a complete reversal of traditional purposes of the school, chiefly, perfecting of man’s highest powers via study of literature, philosophy, and classics

Education is for the body as well as the mind; and this should not be forgotten. Even if it were possible, there is no point in making a man mentally fit for life and neglecting his physical fitness The naturalist, as Herbert Spencer represents them, first regards the pupil from the physical side. For the child is at bottom a little animal, whatever else he may be. He has a body, or, to be more accurate, he is a body one of his first requirements therefore is that he be healthy, a vigorous animal, able to stand the wear and tear of living

Mind and body must both be cared for and the whole being of the student unfolded as a unit. . A child is bad because he is weak, make him strong and he will be good.”

Rousseau’s aim  is to show how a natural education, enables Émile to become social, moral, and rational while remaining true to his original nature. For it  he is educated to be a man, not a priest, a soldier, or an attorney, he will be able to do what is needed in any situation.

Since the naturalist denies the validity of any aims outside the natural sphere, their concern must be with immediate or proximate aims. Perhaps these aims might be summed in the dictum that schools should develop the “whole child,” that is, the entire natural organism. Whereas traditional education had placed major emphasis upon intellectual function, the naturalist proposes that the child be given opportunity to grow physically, mentally , socially, emotionally, aesthetically, vocationally, under the auspices of the school.

According to Spencer this can be achieved by “that education which prepares for direct and indirect self-preservation; that which prepares for parenthood; that which prepares for citizenship; that which prepares for the miscellaneous refinements of life.” Thus the school’s most important job as an educational agency is to see to it that the child learns how to preserve his own physical health and well-being. Preparation for citizenship and leisure time activities appear at  the end of the list and are of lesser importance.

“Complete living” is the general aim As this is not very explicit term, it may be made more understandable by a parallel attempt at generalization. This impression is borne out by the specific objectives which are now to be discussed.

1. Self-preservation is the first of the five objectives. In order to live completely, as man has first of all to live, he has to continue his own existence. While instinct is the chief guarantee of this objective, education may also help by acquainting the learner with the laws of health and enabling him to earn a living.

2. Securing the necessities of life. It is especially in the realm of developing economic efficiency that education helps in preserving life. Money is not life, but it is a necessity in maintaining life. Education should train directly for success in this important function.

3. Raising children. Though a bachelor, Spencer held that the most important function that most men and women have to perform is that of being parents. Therefore education should deal unashamedly both with the care of children in the nursery and the discipline of them as growing boys and girls.

4. Maintenance of social and political relations. Beyond the home in the far-reaching social structure, man must have some understanding and mastery of social and political processes if living is to be complete. He must be a wise citizen who is equipped for effective social and political action.

5. Enjoyment of leisure. Life is not all serious struggles, keeping physically strong, earning a living, being a responsible parent and an earnest citizen. Complete living also includes freedom from struggle some of the time for “gratification of the tastes and feelings.”

THE CONCEPT OF TEACHER

The teacher’s role is to remain in background. The natural development of child should be stimulated. Since, Nature is considered to be best educator,

According to naturalists the teacher is the observer and facilitator of the child’s development rather than a giver of information, ideas, ideals and will power or a molder of character.In the words of Ross “teacher in a naturalistic set up is only a setter of the stage, a supplier of materials and opportunities, a provider of an ideal environment, a creator of conditions under which natural development takes place. Teacher is only a non-interfering observer”.

For Rousseau, the teacher, first of all, is a person who is completely in tune with nature .He has a profound faith in the original goodness of human nature. He believes that human beings have their own time-table for learning. “Emile organized education according to Emile’s (a boy) stages of development. For each stage of  development, the child, shows certain signs that he is ready to learn what is appropriate to that stage. Appreciating the educative role of the natural environment as an educative force the teacher does not interfere with nature, but rather cooperates with the ebb and flow of natural. forces. Significantly, the teacher who is aware of human nature and its stages of growth and development, does not force Emile to learn but rather encourages learning, by insulating him to explore and to grow by his interactions with the environment.

Rousseau opines that teacher should not be in a hurry to make the child learn. Instead he should be patient, permissive and non-intrusive. Demonstrating great patience the teacher can not allow himself to tell the student what the truth is but rather must stand back and encourage the learner’s own self discovery. According to him the teacher is an invisible guide to learning. While ever-present, he is never a taskmaster. Naturalists are of the view that teacher should not be one who stresses books, recitations and massing information in literary form, “rather he should give emphasis on activity, exploration ,learning by doing”.

Great emphasis was placed upon the study which teachers should make of the environmental background of each student, since unacceptable behavior was rooted there rather than in the pupil’s ill will. Teachers were advised to learn of the racial, national, and religious backgrounds of their students if a pupil caused trouble or lacked initiative in school, the home conditions should be studied to see whether a home broken by divorce, death, or marital conflict is responsible for the child’s difficulties. If a teacher were unable to manage a class , he was held responsible because he lacked insight into child nature

THE CONCEPT OF STUDENT

Rousseau once commented that “Everything is good as it comes from the hands of the author of nature. Man meddles with them and they become evil.

True, all God’s creation was good, but man’s own free acts had ushered in sin and evil. No small wonder, then, the following statement by Rousseau fell upon Christendom like a bombshell. Everything is good as it comes from the hands of the Author of Nature; but everything degenerates in the hands of man…. He will leave nothing as nature made it, not even man. Like a saddle-horse that must be trained for man’s service he must be made over according to his fancy, like tree in his garden.

One of the clichés which has been current in education for some time is to the effect that “teachers do not teach subjects, they teach pupils.” Whatever this slogan may convey in meaning, it does direct attention to the importance of the pupil, the person being taught, the educed. Though philosophies do not teach subjects, they teach pupils.”

The pupil is to the teacher what man is to the philosopher. For man who is interpreted by the philosopher also has various practical engagements, one of which is being a pupil at school in his formative years, may be a student in institutions of  advanced learning during his more mature years, and we hope a learner throughout life. If a philosopher is also a teacher and at the some time is consistent in both though and practice, he will view man as a pupil in the classroom in the same way he thinks of him when philosophizing. So the doctrine of the pupil is virtually the doctrine of man in the classroom.

“I hate books; they only teach us to talk about things we know nothing about.”

~Jean Jacques Rousseau

Its curriculum is usually based on the needs, interests and abilities of the child in relation to its levels of development. So, a child-centered curriculum forms an amicable answer of the Naturalist. It helps in recognizes individual differences and experiences of the child should form the core element of the curriculum In like manner the curriculum of the naturalists might be classified as experience-centered.

Professional courses in child and educational psychology became the center of the educational program for teachers. “Know the child and you will know what to teaches” became the slogan of the naturalists

As a doctrine, naturalism does not favor in imposing any boundary on the children. So advocates of this theory have not framed any curriculum of education. They think that each and every child has the power to and demand of his own to frame curriculum. A child will gather experience from nature according to his own demand. He is not to be forced to practice any fixed curriculum. This concept about curriculum existed till the time of Rousseau but it changed after wards. Later on naturalism was influenced by scientific development. So the thinkers think that to give natural pleasure to man, science should be utilized in life. Hence, their concept of curriculum also changed.. They have advised to include the following in the curriculum -

1.       Science dealing with nature will include Physics, Chemistry, Botany etc. These branches of science will help children to be acquainted with nature.

2.       Mathematics and language will be included because these will help to acquire the subjects of science.

3.       History and Social Science – in order to acquire modern knowledge, one should practice the process of evolution. It will also help to realize the importance of those in their present life.

4.       Agriculture and Carpentry will offer opportunity to the children to act them in freedom and will increase their power of observation.

5.       Naturalists felt the importance of Physical Education and Health Training for self protection. But they did not form any particular curriculum for this. They say that the children should be given opportunity for their free movement of bodies in natural environments. They will thus acquire techniques of self-protection from nature and expose themselves in nature.

6.       Drawing naturalists have considered drawing as the main technique of self-expression. They have included drawing as compulsory in the curriculum. Naturalists have also commented about ethical and spiritual training in the curriculum. They were against spiritual training as according to them children should pick their own religion from experiences they acquire. They also said that ethical training should not be imposed on children. They will build their own ethical sense in natural order by receiving rewards and punishments.

Naturalism rejected the rationalistic curriculum of the Renaissance humanists because it lacked any connection with the natural world. In fact, naturalists In its place approves studies designed to meet the personal and vocational needs and interests of the students. Modern languages replace classical ones because they are useful. Health and physical education become an integral part of the curriculum because they contribute to “self-preservation.” Household and industrial “arts” take their place in the curriculum because they meet the legitimate demands of the students.

The role of humanistic studies become minor, for these studies find their reason for existing in the curriculum only insofar as they contribute to “preparation for the worthy use of leisure time.” In other words they are recreational rather than essential

METHODOLOGY OF INSTRUCTION

Methods of instruction should be inductive. This follows from Nature’s advice that teaching make fullest use of the self-activity of the pupil, telling him as little as possible and encouraging him to discover as much as possible for himself. To tell a child this and to show him that only make him a recipient of another’s observations. If the learning intellect is to be guided to its appropriate food, children must master the art of independent observation and direct acquaintance.

The educational  implications of the naturalistic theory holds that good education is pleasurable, thus, methods of teaching should be based upon the belief that the child is not averse to learning, but enjoys it. Teaching methods and materials will appeals to student’s natural inclination to learn. Difficult tasks are not to be excluded, however, for even they can be made pleasant

It is the area of methodology, perhaps, that naturalism has had the greatest effect on education. Since this philosophy constitutes both a reaction against traditional educational methods and a proposal for substituting “natural” methods in their place .The natural mode of self expression is Play and learning should be done through cheerful spontaneous and creativity of play. The process of discovery is given importance. The activities like excursions, fieldtrips and practical experiments are recommended to enhance learning

Education’s methodology perhaps exemplifies this shift from traditionalism most clearly. All of Rousseau’s recommendations on “how to teach” is based on the belief that experience is the only teacher. Spencer, the scientific naturalist, enthroned experimentation, the usual method of empirical sciences, as the only valid method of teaching.

In the first place, the naturalist is opposed to the formalized teacher-centered methods of the medieval and Renaissance scholars, many of which persist to this day. In such methods the teacher was viewed as the teaching-learning process, whereas the student was presumed to be the recipient of the Knowledge presented to him. In their worst form such approaches made of the pupil’s role a very passive one indeed. His only activity was “giving back” to the teacher that which he had learned from the teacher or from books.

This pupil activity usually took the form of recitation or written and oral examinations. It might be argued that such passivity on the pupil’s part a characteristic of all traditional teaching methods. Another characteristic was the repression of the pupil’s natural instincts and desires. In some instances educators such as Cotton Mather believed that education’s most important task was to “drive the devil out” of the pupil. Therefore, the naturalist objected to all harsh methods of discipline; he opposed the view that Children should be seen and not heard Originally applied specifically to (young) women. Hyt ys an old Englysch sawe [saying]: ‘A mayde schuld be seen,

Naturalism maintains that all teaching methods should be based on experience. Since they relies on the inductive method, they  insists that the first criterion for judging the value of a teaching method should be based on self-activity of the pupil finding the answers for himself. The pupil himself must observe nature in order to find facts and discover answer to his problems. To tell the pupil all the facts, to show him the procedures, to give this the answers, merely makes him a recipient of reports of others’ experiences. The child has not learned but merely memorized or “absorbed” what he has been told. Thus all teaching methods should be characterized by pupil activity involving direct or at least vicarious experience; the pupil must educate himself.

A second characteristic of naturalistic teaching learning methods is found in their conformity to the natural development of the pupils. It means readiness of the organism for any given learning. Negatively stated, this principle means that it is not the teacher or society that determines what the child should learn, but his own developmental level. Positively stated, it means that when the organism is ready for a certain type of learning activity it will seek in naturally, that is, without being forced by the teacher or by adult society. Thus the pupil will learn about his physical environment when his interests and instincts lead him to such learning; boy-girl relationships will be developed when children reach the age for such relationships; pupils will learn to read when they are ready.

A third characteristic of naturalistic methodology is that all educational activities should be enjoyable to the child. The tasks assigned by traditionalist teachers were designed to discipline the student and therefore were considered unpleasant by the student, but the naturalist felt that any task that went “against the grain” for the pupil should be avoided. Note how quickly and easily children (or adults) learn what they enjoy. Number games, word games (Scrabble), reading interesting stories, studying plants or animals in their natural habitats, the skills of wood wording, household arts, dramatics, and the like, constitute real enjoyment for the learner.. Thus any teaching-learning methods which make the material distasteful to the pupils should be avoided.

Rousseau advocates negative education – which is typical of naturalistic philosophy – the subordination of the child to natural order and his freedom from the social order. He defines negative education as one that tends to perfect the organs that are the instruments of knowledge before giving them this knowledge directly. The child should be left free to develop his body and senses. He attaches great importance to sense training as he believes senses are the gate ways of knowledge.

CONCEPT OF DISCIPLINE

Punishment should be constituted by natural consequences of wrong deeds; should be certain, but tempered with sympathy. As we should teaches in accordance with the rhythms of Nature, so we should also punish as Nature punishes.

Naturalism emerged at a time when education was confined within the rigid rules of discipline by the influence of Idealism. Naturalism aims at making education free from the bondage of rigid discipline under which children were tortured.” A child born lives and dies in a state of slavery.  At the time of his birth he is stitched in swaddling clothes and at the time his death he is nailed in a coffin. And as long as he preserve the human form he is fettered by our institutions. Man was born free and everywhere he is in shackles.”- Jean-Jacques Rousseau Naturalism, as a philosophy of education advocates maximum freedom for the child and further stresses in freeing the child from the tyranny of rigidity, interference and strict discipline.. The freedom of child disciplines him and he is naturally controlled by his own learning and experiences. There is stress given to discipline by natural consequences.

Since classroom discipline usually is associated with methodology the naturalist asserts a fourth characteristic of sound teaching, namely that all discipline should derive from the natural elements of the situation. The situation will provide a form of innate discipline that should replace that of the teacher. To illustrate, a child learns to avoid hot objects because he has experienced the discomfort and pain which follow his touching them the pupil learn to cooperate with other pupil when he finds himself ostracized by his class mates. .for example- Every time a child puts his finger into the candle flames he gets a burn. Always it happens; always it is a burn. Their are no harsh words, no snapping and snarling, just a burn proportionate to the size of the flame and the extent and duration of the contact. But always there is that much. By this means Nature quickly teachers the normal child the dangers of fire, and exemplifies for parents and teachers what is desirable in corrective relations with children.

If a child is slow in dressing, for a walk, leave him at home. If he breaks a window, let him sit in the cold. If he over -eats, let him be sick. In fact, let him suffer the consequences for which he is responsible himself for going against nature.  When a child begins to expect such consequences as certain to follow if he does not measure up to what is expected of him, he will act so as to enjoy the benefits which follow from appropriate conduct. Furthermore, when punishment of this sort is used, ruffled feelings do not get mixed up with discipline. It is easier for parent or teacher to hold a firm position with the child and yet not lose rapport with him completely. Even the disobedient child should feel that he has not lost all the sympathy of his guardians. But in the common snapping and snarling of parents, the emotional break between parent and child is too sharp and may do more damage than the punishment does good

WOMEN  EDUCATION

Rousseau describes the education of Sophie, the girl who marries Émile. In Rousseau’s view, the education of girls was to be similar with regard to naturalness, but it differed because of sexual differences. A girl cannot be educated to be a man. According to Rousseau, a woman should be the centre of the family, a housewife, and a mother. She should strive to please her husband, concern herself more than he with having a good reputation, and be satisfied with a simple religion of the emotions. Because her intellectual education is not of the essence, “her studies must all be on the practical side.”

AGENCIES OF EDUCATION

If naturalism is true, then it may follow that mothers and /or fathers are the natural teachers, and there is no firm basis for adding to institutions,  Rousseau.  , proposes  that formal schooling is both unnecessary and harmful to education “according to nature.” Even the tutor’s role must be subordinated to that of the home and nature. His function is a negative one: to keep the child and youth from the evil influence of corrupt institutions and society. Of these three educational agencies (home, church, and school) Rousseau would recognize only the home. The foundations of good physical and mental health are laid during infancy It the child is spoiled by faulty home training during these formative years, this tutor will have great difficulty in correcting the errors. .

Other naturalists believed that although the parents role is very important in the child’s education, one should have formalized institutions whose very existence is rooted in nature. they acknowledge the important function that secondary educational agencies serve. Mass communication media such as radio, television, movies, newspapers, all play important parts in the modern child’s education.

EVALUATION OF NATURALISM IN EDUCATION

Perhaps the most controversial from the point of view of many philosophers is the absence of any permanent goals for education. Without some permanence of aims education can easily become a haphazard, day to day activity without any central focus.

By designating experience as the sole source of knowledge naturalism limits itself to one methodology and to a narrow curriculum divested of much of the knowledge acquired by past generations as well as of the many artistic production of the human race.

The somewhat naïve view that human nature is essentially good resulted in the elevation of pupil freedom to the detriment of even the mini al order and discipline essential from optimal learning.

On the other hand the most significant educational reform proposed by the naturalists flows from their belief that the natural growth pattern of children should determine the content and method of education. The modern concept of “readiness,” accepted by educators of all persuasions, is a result of this principle.

A corollary of this generalization reminds the educator that content and method should be adjusted to the individual differences of the pupils. Naturalists recognized the failure of traditional education in regard to this rather obvious fact and offered both theoretical and practical means for adapting content and method to individual differences.

Another principal advocated by the naturalists and generally accepted by all modern educators stresses the pedagogical value of “learning by doing.” Much of traditional teaching was highly verbal and abstract, even when the occasion did not call for such an approach. The naturalist reminds all educators to utilize direct experience whenever possible to insure meaningful and lasting learning.

one final contribution suggested by naturalistic theory which has been a value to all educators can be traced to the dictum that “learning is naturally pleasurable.” Too often, the traditionalists preached that learning was pleasant, but their practices belied their principles. In many traditional schools, especially at the lower levels, it was assumed that “good education” must be unpleasant because children were unwilling to learn. But the naturalist argued that if education utilized the natural interests of student as the starting point for learning even the most difficult tasks could become pleasant. If nature itself contains those ingredients necessary for the improvement of the species, it behooves the educator to formulate his aims, devise educational methods and procedures, create a curriculum, and strengthen educational agencies according to the natural tendencies found within man. Then and only then can one be assured of the continued progress of the human race. Any appeal to sources outsider nature for improvement of the educative process is miseducative since it violates the very foundations upon which education should be built. Nature must be accorded free play if there is to be improvement in the child. Nature itself seems to guarantee progress .

REFERENCES

Broundy, Harry S., Building a Philosophy of Education. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. : Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1961..

Butler, J. Donald, Four Philosophies and Their……… Education and Religion. New York : Harper & Row.

Herbart, J.F., The Science of Education. Boston : D.C.Heath & Company, 1902.

Locke, John Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1902. The basic statement of Locke’s epistemological position.

Weber, Christian O., Basic Philosophies of Education. New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1960. This book, especially in chapters 11-14,.

Broudy, Harry S., Building a Philosophy of Education. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1961..

.Frank Thilly, “A History of philosophy”, Central Publishing House, Allahabad.

John Dewey, “Reconstruction in Philosophy,” p-38. London, University of London Press Ltd. 1921.

John Locke, “An Essay Concerning Human Understanding 1960, Introduction.

Rusk, R.R., “Philosophical Basis of Education” p-68, footnote, London, University of London Press, 1956..

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



Dr. V.K. Maheshwari, Former Principal

K.L.D.A.V(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

Traditionally, the sample is always better than the stock you deliver to the store. ~Calvin Klein

Research is is a careful or diligent search, studious inquiry or examination especially investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws, it can also be the collection of information about a particular subject.

In research it would be ideal to include the entire population when conducting a study; this enables a generalization to be made about the results to the population as a whole. In some cases this has been possible, but not always.

Cox and West describe a population as a well-defined group of people or objects that share common characteristics. A population in a research study is a   group of individual’s persons, objects, or items from which samples are taken for measurement .A population is   group about which some information is sought

Sometimes, the entire population will be sufficiently small, and the researcher can include the entire population in the study. This type of research is called a census study because data is gathered on every member of the population.

Usually, the population is too large for the researcher to attempt to survey all of its members. A small, but carefully chosen sample can be used to represent the population. The sample reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.

Since it will not be practical to recruit every human for the study, it is necessary to define an accessible population. The accessible population is a subset of the target population that reflects specific characteristics  of the entire Most people intuitively understand the idea of sampling. The  basic idea of sampling is that by selecting some of the elements in a population, we may draw conclusions about the entire population. A sample is a finite part of a statistical population whose properties are studied to gain information about the whole .

The cost of studying an entire population to answer a specific question is usually prohibitive in terms of time, money and resources. Therefore, a subset of subjects representative of a given population must be selected; this is called sampling. The concepts involved in selecting subjects to represent the larger population are presented

The Purpose of Sampling

There are some distinct advantages and disadvantages in using samples. Advantages include that sampling involves a smaller number of subjects and is more time efficient, less costly and potentially more accurate (since it is more feasible to maintain control over a smaller number of subjects). Disadvantages include potential bias in the selection of subjects, which may lead to error in interpretation of results and decrease in ability to generalize the results beyond the subjects actually studied.

There are six main reasons for sampling instead of doing a census. These are; -Economy -Timeliness -The large size of many populations -Inaccessibility of some of the population -Destructiveness of the observation –accuracy

The Economic Advantage-Obviously, taking a sample requires fewer resources than a census. For the type of information desired, a small wisely selected sample can serve the purpose. . Rarely does a circumstance require a census of the population, and even more rarely does one justify the expense.

The Time Factor-A sample may provide you with needed information quickly.

The Very Large Populations-Many populations about which inferences must be made are quite large. In such a case, selecting a representative sample may be the only way to get the information required

The Partly Accessible Populations-There are some populations that are so difficult to get access to that only a sample can be used. . The inaccessibility may be economic or time related. Like a particular study population may be so costly to reach like the population of planets that only a sample can be used. In other cases, a population of some events may be taking too long to occur that only sample information can be relied on.

The Destructive Nature of the Observation -Sometimes the very act of observing the desired characteristic of a unit of the population destroys it for the intended use. Good examples of this occur in quality control.

Accuracy and Sampling-A sample may be more accurate than a census. A sloppily conducted census can provide less reliable information than a carefully obtained sample.

Concerns in Statistical Sampling

Representativeness This is the primary concern in statistical sampling. The sample obtained from the population must be representative of the same population.

The reason behind representativeness being the primary concern in statistical sampling is that it allows the researcher to draw conclusions for the entire population. If the sample is not representative of the population, conclusions cannot be drawn since the results that the researcher obtained from the sample will be different from the results if the entire population is to be tested.

Practicability -Practicability of statistical sampling techniques allows the researchers to estimate the possible number of subjects that can be included in the sample, the type of sampling technique, the duration of the study, the number of materials, ethical concerns, availability of the subjects/samples, the need for the study and the amount of workforce that the study demands.

Sampling Error-A sample is expected to mirror the population from which it comes, however, there is no guarantee that any sample will be precisely representative of the population from which it comes.

Sampling error comprises the differences between the sample and the population that are due solely to the particular units that happen to have been selected.

Unfortunately, all samples deviate from the true nature of the overall population by a certain amount due to chance variations in drawing the sample’s few cases from the population’s many possible members. This is called sampling error and is distinguished from non-chance variations due to determining factors. Sampling error is the degree to which a sample might differ from the population. When inferring to the population, results are reported plus or minus the sampling error

The more dangerous error is the less obvious sampling error against which nature offers very little protection. There are two basic causes for sampling error. One is chance: That is the error that occurs just because of bad luck. This may result in untypical choices. Unusual units in a population do exist and there is always a possibility that an abnormally large number of them will be chosen. The second cause of sampling is sampling bias. Sampling bias is a tendency to favor the selection of units that have particular characteristics. Sampling bias is usually the result of a poor sampling plan. The most notable is the bias of non response when for some reason some units have no chance of appearing in the sample.

Non-Sampling Error (Measurement Error)-The other main cause of unrepresentative samples is non sampling error. This type of error can occur whether a census or a sample is being used. Like sampling error, non sampling error may either be produced by participants in the statistical study or be an innocent by product of the sampling plans and procedures.

A non sampling error is an error that results solely from the manner in which the observations are made.

The Interviewers Effect-No two interviewers are alike and the same person may provide different answers to different interviewers. The manner in which a question is formulated can also result in inaccurate responses. Individuals tend to provide false answers to particular questions.

The Respondent Effect-Respondents might also give incorrect answers to impress the interviewer. This type of error is the most difficult to prevent because it results from out right deceit on the part of the responder. It is important to acknowledge that certain psychological factors induce incorrect responses and great care must be taken to design a study that minimizes their effect.

Knowing the Study Purpose-Knowing why a study is being conducted may create incorrect responses. A classic example is the question: What is your income? If a government agency is asking, a different figure may be provided than the respondent would give on an application for a home mortgage.

Induced Bias-Finally, it should be noted that the personal prejudices of either the designer of the study or the data collector may tend to induce bias. In designing a questionnaire, questions may be slanted in such a way that a particular response will be obtained even though it is inaccurate

Types of Sampling

A basic principle of sampling is that every member of the population must have an equal chance of being included in the sample

The two types of sampling methods, probability and nonprobability, are defined and presented with their respective types

Non-Probability Sampling, members are selected from the population in some nonrandom manner. These include convenience sampling, judgment sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling Non-probability sampling includes convenience sampling, consecutive sampling, judgmental sampling, quota sampling and snowball sampling In non-probability sampling, the degree to which the sample differs from the population remains unknown

Probability Samples, each member of the population has a known non-zero probability of being selected. Probability methods include random sampling, systematic sampling, and stratified sampling. Probability sampling includes simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling and disproportional sampling The advantage of probability sampling is that sampling error can be calculated.

The Convenient Sample-Convenience sampling is probably the most commonly used technique in  research today . With convenience sampling, subjects are selected because of their convenient accessibility to the researcher. These subjects are chosen simply because they are the easiest to obtain for the study. This technique is easy, fast and usually the least expensive and troublesome convenience sample results when the more convenient elementary units are chosen from a population for observation. Convenience sampling is used in exploratory research where the researcher is interested in getting an inexpensive approximation of the truth. As the name implies, the sample is selected because they are convenient. This Non-probability method is often used during preliminary research efforts to get a gross estimate of the results, without incurring the cost or time required to select a random sample.

Consecutive Sampling -Is a strict version of convenience sampling where every available subject is selected, i.e., the complete accessible population is studied. This is the best choice of the Non-probability sampling techniques since by studying everybody available, a good representation of the overall population is possible in a reasonable period of time ..

The Judgment Sample-Judgmental sampling, also called Purposive Sampling, is another form of convenience sampling where subjects are handpicked from the accessible population Subjects usually are selected using judgmental sampling because the researcher believes that certain subjects are likely to benefit or be more compliant A judgement sample is obtained according to the discretion of someone who is familiar with the relevant characteristics of the population. It is a common non-probability method. The researcher selects the sample based on judgment.

Disproportional Sampling-Disproportional sampling is a method that facilitates the difficulty encountered with stratified samples of unequal size .

Random sampling-The random sample is the purest form of probability sampling. Each member of the population has an equal and known chance of being selected. When there are very large populations, it is often difficult or impossible to identify every member of the population, so the pool of available subjects becomes biased.

This may be the most important type of sample. A random sample allows a known probability that each elementary unit will be chosen. This is the type of sampling that is used in lotteries and raffles.

Types of random Samples

A Simple Random Sample-A simple random sample is obtained by choosing elementary units in search a way that each unit in the population has an equal chance of being selected. A simple random sample is free from sampling bias. However, using a random number table to choose the elementary units can be cumbersome. If the sample is to be collected by a person untrained in statistics, then instructions may be misinterpreted and selections may be made improperly.

A systematic random sample-Systematic sampling is often used instead of random sampling. It is also called an Nth name selection technique. After the required sample size has been calculated, every Nth record is selected from a list of population members. As long as the list does not contain any hidden order, this sampling method is as good as the random sampling method. Its only advantage over the random sampling technique is simplicity. Systematic sampling is frequently used to select a specified number of records from a computer file

A systematic random sample is obtained by selecting one unit on a random basis and choosing additional elementary units at evenly spaced intervals until the desired number of units is obtained.

A Stratified Sample-Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method that is superior to random sampling because it reduces sampling error. A stratum is a subset of the population that share at least one common characteristic. . The researcher first identifies the relevant stratums and their actual representation in the population. Random sampling is then used to select a sufficient number of subjects from each stratum. “Sufficient” refers to a sample size large enough for us to be reasonably confident that the stratum represents the population. Stratified sampling is often used when one or more of the stratums in the population have a low incidence relative to the other stratums.

A stratified sample is obtained by independently selecting a separate simple random sample from each population stratum. A population can be divided into different groups may be based on some characteristic or variable .

Quota Sampling-Quota sampling is the Non-probability equivalent of stratified sampling. Like stratified sampling, the researcher first identifies the stratums and their proportions as they are represented in the population. Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select the required number of subjects from each stratum. This differs from stratified sampling, where the stratums are filled by random sampling Quota sampling is a non-probability technique used to ensure equal representation of subjects in each layer of a stratified sample grouping

A Cluster Sample-A cluster sample is obtained by selecting clusters from the population on the basis of simple random sampling. The sample comprises a census of each random cluster selected. Cluster sampling is a method used to enable random sampling to occur while limiting the time and costs that would otherwise be required to sample from either a very large population or one that is geographically diverse. Using this method, a one- or two-level randomization process is used the important element in this process is that each one of the criteria have an equal opportunity to be chosen, with no researcher or facility bias

Purposeful Sampling-Purposeful sampling selects information rich cases for in-depth study. Size and specific cases depend on the study purpose.

Intensity Sampling- This is information rich cases that manifest the phenomenon intensely, but not extremely, such as good students, poor students, above average/below average. Maximum variation sampling this involves purposefully picking a wide range of variation on dimensions of interest. This documents unique or diverse variations that have emerged in adapting to different conditions. It also identifies important common patterns that cut across variations.

Typical Case Sampling -It involves taking a sample of what one would call typical, normal or average for a particular phenomenon,

Stratified Purposeful Sampling- This illustrates characteristics of particular subgroups of interest and facilitates comparisons between the different groups.

Critical Case Sampling -This permits logical generalization and maximum application of information to other cases like “If it is true for this one case, it is likely to be true of all other cases.

Snowball or Chain Sampling -This particular one identifies, cases of interest from people who know people who know what cases are information rich that is good examples for study, good interview subjects. This is commonly used in studies that may be looking at issues like the homeless households. What you do is to get hold of one and he/she will tell you where the others are or can be found. When you find those others they will tell you where you can get more others and the chain continues. Snowball sampling is a special Non-probability method used when the desired sample characteristic is rare. It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate respondents in these situations. Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subjects to generate additional subjects. While this technique can dramatically lower search costs, it comes at the expense of introducing bias because the technique itself reduces the likelihood that the sample will represent a good cross section from the population.

Criterion Sampling -Here, you set a criteria and pick all cases that meet that criteria  This method of sampling is very strong in quality assurance.

Theory Based or Operational Construct Sampling -Finding manifestations of a theoretical construct of interest so as to elaborate and examine the construct. Confirming and dis-confirming cases elaborating and deepening initial analysis like if you had already started some study, you are seeking further information or confirming some emerging issues which are not clear, seeking exceptions and testing variation.

Opportunistic Sampling- This involves following new leads during field work, taking advantage of the unexpected flexibility.

Random Purposeful Sampling -This adds credibility when the purposeful sample is larger than one can handle. Reduces judgment within a purposeful category. But it is not for generalizations or representativeness.

Convenience Sampling -It is useful in getting general ideas about the phenomenon of interest. . It saves time, money and effort. It is the poorest way of getting samples, has the lowest credibility and yields information-poor cases.

Combination or Mixed Purposeful Sampling- This combines various sampling strategies to achieve the desired sample. This helps in triangulation, allows for flexibility, and meets multiple interests and needs. When selecting a sampling strategy it is necessary that it fits the purpose of the study, the resources available, the question being asked and the constraints being faced. This holds true for sampling strategy as well as sample size.

Sampling Risks

There are two types of sampling risks, first is the risk of acceptance of the research hypothesis and the second is the risk for incorrect rejection. These risks pertain to the possibility that when a test is conducted to a sample, the results and conclusions may be different from the results and conclusions when the test is conducted to the entire population.

The risk of incorrect acceptance pertains to the risk that the sample can yield a conclusion that supports a theory about the population when it is actually not existent in the population. On the other hand, the risk of incorrect rejection pertains to the risk that the sample can yield a conclusion that rejects a theory about the population when in fact, the theory holds true in the population.

Comparing the two types of risks, researchers fear the risk of incorrect rejection more than the risk of incorrect acceptance. Consider this example; an experimental drug was tested for its debilitating side effects. With the risk of incorrect acceptance, the researcher will conclude that the drug indeed has negative side effects but the truth is that it doesn’t. The entire population will then abstain from taking the drug. But with the risk of incorrect rejection, the researcher will conclude that the drug has no negative side effects. The entire population will then take the drug knowing that it has no side effects but all of them will then suffer the consequences of the mistake of the researcher.

Language also may present a potential difficulty with recruitment. Therefore, a brochure in the appropriate foreign language or a staff or volunteer who can translate or interpret the foreign language may be required.

Exclusion Criteria

Exclusion criteria are applied to subjects who generally meet the inclusion criteria but must be excluded because they cannot complete the study or possess unique characteristics that may confound the results. Subjects who may have unreliable sources of transportation or noncompliant parents also may need to be excluded. An important ethical consideration is the willingness of the subject to participate.

Sample Size

Before deciding how large a sample should be, you have to define your study population. The question of how large a sample should be is a difficult one. Sample size can be determined by various constraints. For example, the available funding may prespecify the sample size. When research costs are fixed, a useful rule of thumb is to spent about one half of the total amount for data collection and the other half for data analysis. This constraint influences the sample size as well as sample design and data collection procedures.

In general, sample size depends on the nature of the analysis to be performed, the desired precision of the estimates one wishes to achieve, the kind and number of comparisons that will be made, the number of variables that have to be examined simultaneously and how heterogeneous a universe is sampled. In non-experimental research, most often, relevant variables have to be controlled statistically because groups differ by factors other than chance.

Deciding on a sample size for qualitative inquiry can be even more difficult than quantitative because there are no definite rules to be followed. It will depend on what you want to know, the purpose of the inquiry, what is at stake, what will be useful, what will have credibility and what can be done with available time and resources. With fixed resources which are always the case, you can choose to study one specific phenomenon in depth with a smaller sample size or a bigger sample size when seeking breadth. In purposeful sampling, the sample should be judged on the basis of the purpose and rationale for each study and the sampling strategy used to achieve the studies purpose. The validity, meaningfulness, and insights generated from qualitative inquiry have more to do with the information-richness of the cases selected and the observational/analytical capabilities of the researcher than with sample size.

Summary

The goals and concepts related to recruitment are reviewed with application to survey and experimental research. Three steps are suggested for obtaining an appropriate research sample: clearly define the target population, the accessible population and define the steps and effort that will be employed to recruit subjects for study.

The goals of sampling are to decrease time and money costs, to increase the amount of data and detail that can be obtained, and to increase accuracy of data collection by preventing errors.

To accomplish these goals it is necessary to follow these steps:

• Clearly define the target population to which the results will be generalized. .
• An accessible population representative of the target must be defined by additional inclusion criteria with specific characteristics regarding the geographic, social and time frames required for this subpopulation.

The sampling process must be defined well ahead of subject selection whether it be a random (probability) or nonrandom (non-probability) approach, and the researchers must adhere to a specific technique for recruitment appropriate for that approach. The recruitment effort must be vigorous enough to assure a large enough sample to enable statistical validity and must minimize probability of error and bias of selection.

In conclusion, it can be said that using a sample in research saves mainly on money and time, if a suitable sampling strategy is used, appropriate sample size selected and necessary precautions taken to reduce on sampling and measurement errors, then a sample should yield valid and reliable information

Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a suitable sample, or a representative part of a population for the purpose of determining parameters or characteristics of the whole population The process of defining a representative subpopulation to study is called sampling.

References

1.   Webster, M. (1985). Webster`s nith new collegiate dictionary. Meriam – Webster Inc.

2.   Salant, P. and D. A. Dillman (1994). How to conduct your own survey. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

3.   Patton, M.Q.(1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. SAGE Publications. Newbury Park London New Delhi.

4.   Lapin, L. L. (1987). Statistics for mordern business decisions. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.

5.   Cox RC, West WL. Fundamentals of research for health professionals, 2nd ed. Ramsco Pub. Co.; 1986:29.

6.   Portney LG, Walkins MR Foundations of clinical research: Applications to practice. East Norwalk, Conn.: Appleton and Lange; 1993.

7.   Dominowski RL. Research methods. New Jersey: PrenticeHall; 1980.

8.   Hulley SB, Cummings SR. Designing clinical research. An epidemiologic approach. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins; 1988.

 

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A(Socio, Phil) B.Se. M. Ed, Ph.D

Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

 

Teacher empowerment can be defined as ‘investing teachers with the right to participate in the determination of school goals and policies and to exercise professional judgment about what and how to teach,

Bolin, F.S. (1989). “Empowering  Leadership”.

 

 

Empowerment has become a widely used word. Yet, it is one of the most misleading term and one of the least understood in terms of how it is to be measured or how it is to be observed. Thus understanding the empowerment is a complex issue with varying interpretation in different contexts.

The popular use of the word also means that it has been over extended and applied in circumstances that clearly do not involve much power acquisition beyond some symbolic activity or event.

Empowerment is a serious word- one which brings up the question of personal agency rather than reliance on intermediaries, one that links action to needs and one that does not merely concern personal identity but brings out a broader analysis of human rights and social justice. Thus, empowerment is enablement by changing the person, changing structures, replacing or recreating conventional institutions or rearranging the environment.

Education is considered one of the most important means to empower teachers with the knowledge, skills in self-confidence necessary to participate fully in development processes. Empowerment has become part of today’s rhetoric of educational discourse and exchange, as it aids in the understanding and visualization of the human ability within organizations to improve and increase opportunities for autonomy, responsibility, choice and authority  .It is considered to be a basic element of school reform

Teaching has historically been a profession which granted practitioners some degree of autonomy in their class rooms, but large institutional decisions affecting their work were still controlled by administrators and policy-makers. Everything from hiring, budgeting, scheduling, text-book and technology selection to professional development and curriculum is often in the hands of others.

The importance of teacher empowerment in key education areas can not be underestimated. A belief by teachers that their knowledge of teaching and learning (and the very students they teach) matters and is considered a valuable factors in decision making. The connection can help improve the retention of those teachers in their class rooms and ultimately the success of the students they teacher.

Boomer called for the empowerment of students and investigated ways in which power and responsibility could be shared. He believes that teachers can empower students by allowing them to “exercise their own powers and responsibilities” .Ashcroft described empowerment as personal power, which can exist in both personal and social spheres. He believes that empowerment should be a philosophy of education. For schools to be successful at empowering students for their futures they need to examine “fundamental beliefs held about the purposes of education, the nature of knowledge, of learning, of development, and of teacher-learner relationships”

Empowerment transpires over time and usually it is not instantaneous, it means building aspirations, hopes and expectations. In nutshell it is the ability to direct and control one’s own life. Empowering is not something that can be turned on and off but needs to be consistent and persuasive.

Kreisberg examined the nature of power and its relationship to empowerment, specifically focusing on the difference between power-with and power-over. He defined empowerment as people or groups gaining control over their own lives and the decisions that affected them. He accepted the importance of the community, where the empowerment of an individual was connected . Thus, the empowerment of an individual teacher is tied to the empowerment of allteaching community in school.. He suggested that empowerment is enabled by improving lives of a community and community members through dialogue and working collaboratively. Individuals can be empowered to take control over their lives and valued resources, that is gain power-to, through the development of social skills, particularly interpersonal and group skills.

Similarly Brunson and Vogt also closely related the empowerment of an individual to that of the group structure or community to which they belong. They described empowerment as a growth process of an individual supported and encouraged by the group structure within which he or she is working to promote learning. Empowerment can be initiated by oneself or by others intervening. Additionally, it is a process that occurs at varying levels and rates of progression. Brunson and Vogt’s definition focuses on how to achieve empowerment rather than what empowerment is. It states that individuals can initiate their own empowerment, however, people are often restricted by external constraints.

Yowell and Smylie , in an examination of how self-regulation develops, suggested that Essentially, self-regulation is concerned with intra psychological processes and therefore highly self-regulated students are probably likely to be empowered intrapersonal, however, they may not be empowered interpersonally.

These conceptions of empowerment develop the notion that the empowerment of individuals is connected to their community. Accordingly, not only is an individual’s power-to important, but also sharing power within the community is important. Empowerment relates to the development of self-regulation. They defined student empowerment as the translation of a goal into a plan and method of action.

The definitions previously discussed, offer varying perspectives. With these in mind, we  provide an operational definition of empowerment as a philosophy that creates an atmosphere in which individual teachers are supported by the classroom community to take responsibility for their lives in trying to meet their needs within learning settings. Empowerment has both interpersonal and intrapersonal dimensions. Interpersonal empowerment occurs when individuals or groups work with each other to meet their needs , that is they have a sense of power-with. Intrapersonal empowerment is when someone has belief in his or her ability or capability to be empowered or a sense of power-to. Empowerment is enabled by working with people not for people, that is, sharing power within a class    community

Notion of Teacher Empowerment-

Actually teacher empowerment is strongly correlated with task motivation. Therefore one can claim that in order to engage teachers in pedagogical reform one must give them some control over their own work and influence in the reform process. It also means that fake empowerment strategies will lead to bad out

There are three conceptions of power that are useful for examining empowerment: power-over, power-with and power-to. Power-over can be considered a negative force of power in the form of domination as the effect on the individual(s) over which the power is wielded is likely to be a position of powerlessness. An alternative to power-over is power-with, which can be considered as a positive force of power because it is about equal power relationships rather than domination. Power-to, a third conception of power, exists when a person perceives that they have the ability or capability to act and thus can be considered a positive force of power. Both power-over and power-with operate in the interpersonal sphere whereas power-to is an intrapersonal power. These conceptions of power offer a means of examining the power relations in a classroom.

In the classroom, teachers by the very nature of their position have power-over students and are left to decide how they use or exert their power. Teachers who choose to enable student empowerment can share authority or power with students to establish positive forces of power,

Teacher empowerment too denoted a process of acquiring, providing, bestowing the resources and the means or enabling the access to and control over such means and resources. This implies that the individual has the potential to acquire power upon her own initiative or that another party could make it possible for him to have power.

Empowerment enables the teacher to gain insight and have an awareness of what is undesirable and unfavorable about her current situation, the possibilities of attaining it. This characterization of empowerment implies that the process could involve a change of perception about the self, the environment and the relationship of self and the environment. It is a process that involves the creation of images, the generation of a ‘push’ to act or what educational psychologists call motivation. Change of perceptions implies a change of attitude and change in one’s outlook in life.

Components of Teacher Empowerment

The most frequently identified components of empowerment was decision making; others mentioned frequently were collegiality/collaboration, professional knowledge, self-efficacy, autonomy, and status of classroom teachers. Less frequently mentioned were authority, curriculum planning/design, impact/causal importance, leadership, mentoring, responsibility, and self esteem. Study findings suggest that to participate in school restructuring, teachers must pursue knowledge beyond that of subject content and pedagogy. Their professional knowledge must include a thorough grounding in both the philosophy and processes of the change model adopted by their school Decision making, among other issues, plays a crucial role in teacher empowerment, strengthening and increasing teacher effectiveness

Empowerment is strongly correlated with task motivation. Therefore in order to engage teachers in pedagogical reform one must give some control over their work related with different instructional aspects.

Baruch, Thomas and Velthouse refer four components in empowerment process-

1-            Choice- providing teachers with genuine job enrichment and opportunities to have not only their voice heard, but giving them real power for control and influence over instructional process.

2-            Competence- enabling the teachers to be confident in their capacity to   make decisions and stand for them.

3-            Meaningfulness- It is valuing the work done by the empowered teacher.

4-            Impact- Letting the teacher has actual influence over what is going on in school, ensuring their decisions make a difference.

According to Dee (2003) empowerment can be defined with Spreitzer’s four dimensions-

1-            Meaning- The value of a work goal or purpose judged in relation to the teacher’s own ideals or standard

2-            Competence- The teacher’s belief in his/her capacity to perform instructional activities with skills

3-            Self-determination- The teacher’s sense of having a choice in initiating and regulating actions

4-            Impact- Degree to which an individual can influence outcome at work

On the basis of above referred components the following instructional/literary practices can be empowered.

1-            Developing curriculum and Materials- We have all been saying that it is important for our curriculum and materials to be learners centered and that means we should use generative themes for our curriculum as well as our text-books. It also includes students generates materials in developing curriculum and materials. Teacher is faced with the issue of flexibility.

2-            Language- It is not very important what language to use by the teacher, whether the dominant language or the ethnic languages, but the important thing is the sentiment of the language.

3-            Teaching Methods- There is great variation and uneven quality in this area because of the decision of the groups involved to be flexible and participatory and more responsible to the needs of the student.

4-            On Evaluation- Learning from experience should be the main goal of evaluation towards this end. The focus should be on documentation, analysis of the key principles and the methodologies which balanced qualitative and quantitative indicators. There must be a balance between external and internal evaluation.

As a teacher educator and a teacher we personally feel that if the following recommendations are accepted and implemented, there is fairly good chance for providing empowering opportunities.

1-            Creating opportunities both formal and informal for teachers to influence, design, create and implement school and academic qualities for the state and procedures.

2-            Encouraging the inclusions of teachers in community, school and state level discussions related to the well-fare and ability of all students to academically achieve at the highest level.

3-            Providing teachers access to resources (financial, time, opportunities etc.) to identify and solve problem related to their classroom in order to ensure they can help all students learn.

PRESENT SCENERIO IN TEACHER EMPOWERMENT AND THE RELATIONSHIP OF TEACHER EMPOWERMENT AND PRINCIPAL POWER BASES

Empowerment, also referred to as shared decision-making, is essential to school reform and to the changing demands in a global world. The principal and the college management are the building leaders who structures the climate to empower both teachers and students at the site. Empowerment translates in to teacher leadership and exemplifies a paradigm shift with the decisions made by those working most closely with students rather than those at the top of the pyramid.

Traditionally principal leadership has been looked upon as being authoritarian. It has evolved into a type of leadership described as being coercive, manipulative, and controlling. These negative tactics have proven counter-productive.

The empowerment research agrees the conditions under which teachers work are often set up in such a way as to deny teachers a sense of efficacy, success, and self-worth. There is often too much isolation and surviving on ones’ own.

Unfortunately, many teachers go through a period of teaching under the supervision of principals who are described as authoritarian. The teacher becomes bored, resentful, and unhappy. Many wake up in the morning saying “I really don’t want to go.” Many contemplate leaving the teaching profession altogether.

On the other hand, many teachers find themselves working “with” principals instead of “for” principal teachers into the profession, and to reverse a general trend toward treating them as employees who do specific tasks planned in detail by other people. By introducing these new paradigms, the teaching profession will become a truly rewarding experience.

In the book, Zapp in Education (1992),” A principal experienced first-hand leadership qualities through a time machine. The principal witnesses his own typical leadership scenario every day in the school. The principal was seen walking away from a teacher who was trying to communicate. The principal was seen telling the college management how to do the job and does not listen to ideas or feelings. The principal rushed over to someone who is having a problem and immediately takes over to solve the problem. Teachers expressed concern among themselves for they had no idea how well they were performing as educators. Negatives comments comprised the conversations among the staff regarding both the principal and the students. A letter of reprimand caused a teacher to dread going into the school. Much “top-down” management was being practiced. Within the school, the climate appeared to be dim and gloomy because none of the teachers had vitality and enthusiasm. Finally, in the scenario, the principal came to terms with a list of what demoralizes people: lack of responsibility, no authority, and no time to solve problems; meaningless work, no challenges, assignments that are always the same; no way of measuring your own performance; lack of trust and poor communication; rigid, bureaucratic policies, and confusion; not enough knowledge, skills, or resources to do the job well; lack of support, coaching, and feedback; and people treated exactly the same, like interchangeable parts

Unfortunately, principals have no way to watch their own actions such as that illustrated in Zapp inEducation (1992); otherwise, the research conducted by Michigan State University (Blase, 1990) would tell a different story. Ninety-two percent of the teachers surveyed in the study indicated that their morale was substantially affected by the tactics employed by their principal. Such terms as “apathetic,” “alienated,” and “less satisfied” (Blase, 1990, p. 731) were used. In addition, teacher involvement in school-wide activities was reduced substantially. Teachers’ low self-esteem was attributed to the fact that the principal made them feel as if their thoughts and opinions were not valid or important. Feelings of the teachers included anger, depression, and anxiety. The study concluded that all of these morale and self-esteem factors impeded teacher input and leadership.

According to the study conducted by Blase (1990), who examined politics in the educational setting, administrators were not revered as respected, caring, popular people by the people they lead and manage.

An overview of the data indicated that a great majority of the principals used control tactics. These school principals were seen as manipulators and rewards were associated with resource distribution, administrative assignments, appointments, and advancement opportunities.

Further in-depth investigation of politics within schools revealed that control tactics were seen as deceptive and self-serving (Blase, 1990). Not uncommonly, control tactics were experienced as coercive; they were defined as forceful, stressful, and punishing. Control tactics were perceived as reactive and unilateral. The direction of influence was from principals to teachers, as well as the end goals were seen as predetermined and nonnegotiable. According to the data, the control tactics and its related strategies were employed by principals almost entirely with teachers. The principals were found to use control tactics frequently associated with the manipulation of resources, work factors within the classrooms (class loads, class size, homeroom responsibilities), work factors outside the classroom (strict rule enforcement, unwillingness to bend rules), opportunities for input in decisions (extra curricula, curricula), support, and opportunities for advancement. The manipulation of merit salaries, evaluations, and work contracts was discussed less frequently. Teachers also claimed that some principals used the threat of sanctions to obtain compliance.

Likewise, principals were seen as manipulative–involving favored teachers. Those teachers who went along with the politics reaped the benefits.

Some principals used harassment as a control tactic (Blase, 1990). Usually such a ploy was used to force the teacher to leave. Principals created pseudo opportunities for teacher participation, leadership, and decision making. Frequently principals employed the subordinate status, emphasizing the authority differences: “I’m the boss, you are here to do a certain job”

Another control tactic employed by principals was categorized as the protective strategy which involved three classifications: acquiescence, ingratiation, and inconsistency. Principals were perceived as using this tactic to reduce the vulnerability they could otherwise experience from criticism, and demands from both external and internal publics. Acquiescence involved submissive behavior which tended to direct decision making to please the community even when it went against sound educational standards. People with money used their influence to get something for their child. Ingratiation included the promotion of activities and programs to satisfy the community even when it is total nonsense. Inconsistency referred to the contradictory changes in day-to-day decisions and policies in response to conflicting external pressures.

The vision of empowerment exemplifies a paradigm shift with the decisions made by those working most closely with students rather than those at the top of the pyramid. The pyramid must be reversed with the decision making occurring at the bottom., as the definition of empowerment changes now  empowerment occurs when power goes to employees who then experience a sense of ownership and control over their jobs. Byham and Cox  stated empowering employees involves helping them take ownership of their jobs so that they take personal interest in improving the performance of the organization. .  In essence, a more empowered work force is a more productive work force.

Although the definitions of empowerment have emerged from the corporate world, the concept of teacher empowerment parallels employee empowerment in school. Bolin  defined empowerment as investing teachers with the right to participate in the determination of school goals and policies and to exercise professional judgment about what and how to teach. Lucas, Brown, and Markus  defined teacher empowerment as a function of the readiness of building-level administrators to share their autonomy with those whose commitment is necessary to make the educational program function at the highest degree of efficiency.  shared this outlook by defining teacher empowerment as the development of an environment in which the teachers act as professionals and are treated as professionals.

He further explained that empowerment means that school authorities provide teachers with the authority to make decisions that have, in traditional systems, been made for them, a time and a place to work and plan together during the school day, and a voice in efforts to deepen their knowledge and improve their teaching.

The principal must begin with “self” to become effective.  The more aware one is of personal paradigms, the more likely one can take responsibility for their own paradigms. A paradigm is defined as the way one perceives, understands, and interprets everything going on, one needs to examine one’s paradigms against reality, listen, and be open to other people’s perceptions. A larger, more  objective picture results. Many  times a way of thinking change. Instantaneous shifts are not common occurrences. Covey stated that one’s character is a composite of his habits and through tremendous commitment, these habits can be changed to bring about success. Covey defined a habit as “the intersection of knowledge, skill, and desire” . Knowledge is  what to do and the why. Skill is the how to do. Desire is the motivation, the want to do. In order to develop a habit, all three have to be incorporated.

Empowerment does not mean that principals relinquish power or that teachers must continually challenge authority. Empowerment is defined as teacher liberation, meaning the teacher is free from the “unwarranted control of unjustified beliefs” .The principal must have the innate ability to have vision. A vision refers to a future state that does not presently exist. A principal operates on a vision which is based on values, commitment, and aspirations.

Successful principal do a lot of asking and listening. Two-way communication is established to gain access to these ideas. A great deal of time is spent interacting with people. Three sources from which to seek guidance include the past, present, and alternative image of future possibilities. Reflection of past experiences from one’s self as well as others assist in building a mental picture of what did and did not work. Present practices give similar insight. To acquire vision for the future and allow spontaneous leadership requires much research for ideas. A vision cannot be implemented by edict or by coercion. It is more an act of persuasion, of creating an enthusiastic and dedicated commitment to a vision because it is right for the times right for the organization, and right for the people who are working in it.

Thus, the principal develops credibility. In schools where teachers are empowered to be leaders, the focus of control for the substance of organizational change shifts from the principal to teachers. It is an evolutionary process that is totally dependent upon principals trusting teachers and teachers trusting their principals. The principal who has  great trust in the abilities of staff members must believe that to work is as natural as play or rest. Commitment is related to the rewards associated with achievement. Teachers must be convinced that teaching is a profession. Many say it is a profession but few believe it. Everything must be done to project that image. Dress, mannerisms, behavior, and participation in professional activities can enhance their leadership qualities and capabilities. Teachers should put their diplomas, certificates, and awards on their walls to demonstrate their competence and leadership abilities. Teachers should be proud of their academic and personal accomplishments. Teachers need to collaborate and share their expertise. Principals should foster teachers sharing and learning from each other. Professional growth and development must be encouraged and accommodated. Achievements such as higher degrees, additional certifications, special seminars and workshops, presenting, doing research, writing a journal, receiving grants, partnerships, and/or honors should be encouraged and recognized.

As a principal, trust should not be something that has to be earned. It should automatically be granted upon arrival at school. However, it can be lost and then it must be earned back. Communication of this is crucial. Where trust prevails, teachers feel free to be creative and risk takers. Both successes and failures need to be supported. Failures are often the best teachers. Such initiatives should not go unnoticed. Notes in mailboxes as well as verbal praise both privately and publicly should take place often to encourage teachers.

Principals need to be truly interested in what takes place within the classrooms in their schools. In addition, the principal must be willing to attend workshops and conferences with the teachers. The principals’ conferences should not be limited to administration nor should teachers be limited to only teacher organizations.

The principal must use the staff to help make decisions. Every decision cannot be submitted for input and vote; however, financial, curricular, and staffing decisions can be made. Teachers collectively can, along with their expertise, be used as often as possible. .

Outstanding principals go beyond merely involving teachers in decision-making. Principals implement three strategies:

(a) Provide a supportive environment that encourages teachers to examine and reflect upon their teaching and on school practice;

(b) Use specific behaviors to facilitate reflective practice; and

(c) Make it possible for teachers to implement ideas and programs that result from reflective practice. Within the area of providing a supportive environment, teachers are allowed to teach in the manner they feel is most appropriate; however, they do have to justify their methodologies. Other perspectives through creative use of staff development provides opportunities to share. Professional articles are shared by the administrator. Another aspect of a supportive environment creates teaming structures for collective responsibility.

Facilitating reflective practices enables teachers to study their teaching in a proactive manner. As stated earlier, questions asked by the principal place the responsibility for developing solutions and resolving conflicts upon those involved. Additionally, the principal critiques by wandering around and encouraging the teachers to do likewise. The purpose of wandering around is to give teacher leaders the opportunity to clarify their personal visions, that strengthen the organizational vision, and also provide them opportunities to remove themselves from the traditional classroom setting and hone their observation skills of just how a total school building operates. Teachers must be afforded the opportunity to break out from the four walls of their classrooms to collaborate, facilitate, and feel they have the freedom and flexibility to pursue professional growth.

In order for teachers to have the opportunity to implement ideas and programs, resources in the form of money, materials, time, and opportunity must be available. When the request cannot be met by the principal, other options should be discussed instead of a flat “no.” Other possibilities include grants, local businesses, and state incentives

Both administrator and teachers alike are faced with more decision-making responsibilities than ever before. Without empowerment and teacher leadership, neither side wins. As pointed out by Covey the win/win situation is the ultimate goal.

References-

Bolin, F.S. (1989). “Empowering Leadership”. Teachers College Record, 19(1), 81-96.

Dee, Jay R., Alan B. Henkin, Lee Duemer (2003). “Structural antecedents and psychological correlates of teacher empowerment”, Journal of Educational Administration, Volume 41 Number 3pp.257-277, ISSN 0957-8234

Etzioni, A. (1968), “The Active Society”.  The Free Press, New York, NY.

Lee, W. (1991). Empowering music teachers: A catalyst for change. Music Educators Journal, 78(1), 3.

Richard, Ingersoll, (2003). “Who controls teachers work, power and accountability in American schools?” Howard University Press.

Thomas, K., Velthouse, B. (1990), “Cognitive elements of empowerment: an interpretive model of intrinsic task motivation”, Academy of Management Journal, vol.15 No. 4,     pp.666-81.

Rao, D.B., Rao, D.P., “Women Education and Empowerment”. Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi.

Blase, J.J. (1990, Winter). Some negative effects of principals’ control-oriented and protective political behavior. AmericanEducational Research Journal, 27, 727-753.

Erlandson, D.A., & Bifano, S.L. (1987). Teacher empowerment: What research says to the principal. NASSP Bulletin, 71(503),

Foster, W. (1986). Paradigms and promises: New approaches to educational administration. Buffalo: Prometheus Books.

Peel, H., & Walker, B. (1994). What it takes to be an empowering principal. Principal, 73(4), 41-42.

Prawat, R.S. (1991, Winter). Conversations with self and settings: A framework for thinking about teacher empowerment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Dr Suraksha Bansal and Mrs Rakhi Maheshwari for  being  the Scribes of  this article

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Dr. V.K.Maheshwari, M.A(Socio, Phil) B.Se. M. Ed, Ph.D

Former Principal, K.L.D.A.V.(P.G) College, Roorkee, India

 

Role playing is one of the most under-used techniques available to the child and youth. This is because it is also one of the least understood of techniques. While we have all seen it, and even experienced it, in our training, we have seldom had the opportunity to really dissect it: to tear it apart and analyze it so that we come to know its value, power and usefulness. As a result we end up using role play when we’re stuck, bored or desperate rather than using it because it is appropriate for this situation. It is an essentiality to understand some of the “how,” “why,” and “when” of role play in a manner that is simple and clear.

The term “role” comes from the “rolled-up” script actors used to use over two thousand years ago in Ancient Greece. In time, the script became the part, and actors then were said to play the “role” of, say, Hamlet or Othello or Ophelia or Desdemona.

But one can also create a role, improvise a performance, and in fact children do this all the time in their pretend play. There’s a kind of vitality that attends this type of imaginative activity, and a young physician in Vienna around 1910 was intrigued by the nature of creativity and spontaneity. Just as the modern artists were challenging old traditions, so there were those who saw the traditional theater as encrusted with obsolete forms, emotionally phony and dead? This young physician, Jacob L. Moreno (1889-1974) sought to revive theatre by inviting the actors to improvise, and his early “Theater of Spontaneity” in 1921 became the base of the method he called “psychodrama.” In addition to applying it to help psychiatric patients, Moreno found that the basic techniques could be modified to help groups address social problems, and called this approach “sociodrama.”

Moreno had a most fertile mind, and wove together many associated ideas about social psychology and group dynamics. One aspect of role playing was that of diagnosis or assessment–a test of how a person would act when placed in an imagined or pretend problematic situation.

Role playing, a derivative of a sociodrama,  a method that may be used to help students understand the more subtle aspects of literature, social studies, and even some aspects of science or mathematics. It may be used in a classroom for the understanding of literature, history, and even science. Further, it can help the students to become more interested and involved, not only learning about the material, but also learning  to integrate the knowledge in action, by addressing problems, exploring alternatives, and seeking novel and creative solutions. It is the best way to develop the skills of initiative, communication, problem-solving, self-awareness, and working cooperatively in teams

 

Role-playing, or “learning through acting”, is a technique that requires participants to perform a task in a realistic situation simulating “real life”.  This type of exercise is an effective means to take in and absorb the content and substance of new ideas.  It facilitates an active understanding of the information and gives participants the opportunity to apply new skills and abilities.  The simulation serves as a rehearsal on how to conduct future activities.  By recreating models of real situations, which “play out” a problematic scenario, the participants are given the opportunity to see the situation from perspectives other than those they might be taking in reality.  Both the participants and the facilitators have an opportunity to see “hidden obstacles” that may arise in dealing with the problem and can explore alternative ways of addressing them. The participants not only rehearse their own behavior in a particular situation, but also have the opportunity as a group to evaluate how effective the staged resolution of the problem actually was.

Role-playing is very effective methods to learn and gain experience.  An individual is likely to remember their personal feelings more intensely and for a longer period of time.  The role game helps to analyze how people behave in a certain situation, how to evaluate and predict their reactions.  From this viewpoint, self-awareness is an integral part of problem-solving and communications.. And the best way to learn all three categories of skills is through role playing.

Jean Piaget, the great psychologist, described two modes of learning: “assimilation” and “accommodation.” In assimilation, people figuratively “fill in” their mental map of their world, while in accommodation, they figuratively change that mental map, expand or alter it to fit their new perceptions. It is a commonly accepted cliché that we want to teach our young people to think, but thinking at any level of complexity requires an exercise of three interdependent component categories of skills: problem-solving; communications; and self-awareness. These skills cannot be learned by reading any number of books. Rather, the kinds of skills needed for flexible, creative, rational thinking must be exercised, practiced, and learned in a process of interaction, risk-taking, self-expression, feedback, encouragement

Role playing in teaching

Role playing seems to be an educational tool favored by students and teachers alike. Students  welcome role playing because this activity brings variations, movement, and most likely, simulated life experience into the classroom . Teachers favor role playing as a handy means of enlivening the learning content; in particular, this model brings forth detailed and concrete study materials which are more difficult to pinpoint by the way of lecture and discussion. Yet role playing at one point in the seventies had become so overused that students often loathed it; almost all classroom or training sessions used this technique. Teachers conceived of it as a safe teaching device because role playing appeared to be a partial answer to the students’ demands for more personal involvement in their learning experience. Furthermore, hierarchical levels in the classroom tended to be partially obliterated by this teaching method and thereby were in tune with the times. Role playing had its vogue.

Currently, role playing is used for its promise to engage learner and teachers alike in a specific learning experience. It can be employed for its rich transfer of learning potential to each participant’s own learning repertoire. Now, with role playing as an educational device of choice rather than a politicized tool, it can be adopted and effectively applied so long as the instructing persons are clear about the learning objectives. They need to assess the educational appropriateness of each role playing assignment or simulated exercise.

An effective training tool

Role playing is primarily for the participants’ skill acquisition (behavioral competence development) it  is basically to enhance the learners’ cognitive understanding (information intake and intellectual grasp)Or is it essentially to enrich the trainees’ affect experience (their emotional awareness and enrichment)

Each well-focused learning experience, be it primarily be the behavioral, cognitive or affective domain, will naturally deal with, the other two dimensions of learning; nevertheless, for the purpose of effective learning and teaching, instructors have to understand that each of these three human processes has its own distinct progression of development. Effective role playing structures would then be selected and devised accordingly.

For practice skill acquisition

Role playing geared essentially toward the participants’ capacities to expand their practice skills and techniques demands that the instructor be aware that skills are to be central to the participants’ learning.

Once the skills or techniques to be practiced are firm in the teacher’s mind, she or he has to specify a role playing situation where such skills are in demand. Let us say, for instance, that the participants are to learn ways and means of handling children who are abruptly switching activities because it is time for them to leave for school or some other inflexible time demand. The participants are then challenged to set up for themselves a child or youth care group situation where the youngsters are engaged in a variety of activities, none related to readiness for a school deadline. The nature of such a situation is left entirely to the participants’ creativity, utilizing their past experience to produce such a simulated situation. Learners are also challenged to arrange the simulated practice situation within the available space, furniture and other props at hand. (The instructor may provide them with props or whatever is in order to enliven the forthcoming role playing situation.)

Prior to the actual role playing, the persons to advance their working skills are coached in the behavior they should practice and acquire. In other words, the selection of practice situation is left open to the participants; the interactions for the critical practice situation are closely defined. This delineates the teaching/learning situation which has to be structured; moreover, the actual behavior to be practiced may have to be learned beforehand. Role playing does not teach new behaviors or techniques; it teaches their application

Because practice skills are to be learned and not merely illustrated, the instructor or supervisor has the task of modeling such differentiated skills not merely by description but also by acting out the differentiated behaviors. The trainee is then asked to practice the skills within the forthcoming role playing exercise. Important, too, is that the role playing situation be brief with the focus upon the worker practicing new skills or techniques. The learning requires hands-on quick practice rather than the extension of any scenario. The learner is immediately briefed after each try and typically is requested to practice once again. The practice may include suggestions for changes in his or her care work behavior or an important repeat of the handling demonstrated by previous students. Effective practice behaviors are mastered by doing them, and the learning is affirmed with the valid experience of having done so. The experience of one’s own efficacy solidifies learning

In brief, when training in creative behavior is the focus, the trying out, practice, and refinement of such competence are in order with as little discussion a role playing of just a minute or so is most effective. The trainer/educator must be immediately on hand to assist the learner in sharpening the skills to be mastered. Rather than a generalized evaluation such as “you did well,” specific comments on the learner behavioral actions should be given. The actual satisfaction has to emerge not out of the trainer’s evaluation but out of the practitioners’ satisfaction based on learning of their effective interaction within the simulated situation, and subsequent experience of efficacy.

For the enhancement of knowledge

When the learners are challenged to enhance their knowledge through the intake of information and the expansion of their comprehension, role playing exercises can serve as a powerful device.

Role playing and simulated practice have to be structured; however, quite differently from the previous skill learning The simulated situation should assist the learner to understand, to assimilate, and to accommodate cognitively Such cognitive processes have the best chance when the learners can be set somewhat apart from the role playing scene in order to witness the actual events in a total context

Instructors would then structure the critical events, the roles to be played, and in particular would clarify the finer points to be acted out in order to deal “naturally’ with the learning content to be witnessed. The role players would subsequently then develop their own scenario with the instructor only insisting that they weave in the learning points, so that these occur in the dramatization. This segment demands at least five to ten minutes in order to provide a reasonable portrayal of the critical material to be comprehended.

A discussion, which would follow, is basic to the learning endeavor, and must focus upon that which has been observed in the role play and upon what meaning it has toward comprehension. The objective is to assist trainees with a clearer and more comprehensive or changed understanding in order to expand, or possibly to change their knowledge screen The actual learners are the viewers. The role players, in contrast to other role playing structures, are apt to be only marginal recipients of the learning situation.

For a change of affect

Role playing is probably best known for ascertaining feeling levels and possible validation of emotional experiences. Such experiences can be rich learning events when they actually relate to the desired educational objectives rather than serving merely as interesting or emotionally charged occurrences. Affect (emotions) can be changed when participants experience personally the emotions involved and the efficacy of a different framing of these emotional energies.

For the focus upon role playing to deal with affect (emotional) processes ,it is essential that the role playing and simulated experience are loosely set. The spontaneous interactions of key role players within a defined context are intended to provide the critical experience. The instructor, has to define specifically beforehand which roles are to be in the center and which well specified circumstances are heeded (context). The learners will determine their role selection and cast events on the basis of their own experience and intuitive projections.

This kind of role playing experience requires ample latitude in time, space and follow-up discussion. The actual role playing segment demands at least ten minutes to afford role players sufficient time to get into the required mood and emotion-evoking role interactions. Equally, players need ample space to develop and act out their feelings with each other. The non-playing (but hopefully deeply involved viewers and instructors) must be out of the play scene and absolutely silent. Laughter and expressions of pain, disgust or whatever, have to be totally controlled; otherwise role players may partially act in regard to the onlookers’ response.

After completion of the actual role playing, the onus is upon the central role players’ personal experience within the critical role playing events. The players’ discussion about their affect experience is the essence rather than the onlookers’ observations. Again, time is needed to get a firm hold on their affect experience, their power bases, and their desires to “tell it all.” The instructor or supervisor has to remain mindful that right after the key players’ powerful interactions, the players’ experiences have to be identified and discussed. Observations of other players in the simulation, or onlookers’ observations, including the instructor’s own, have to be held back (however pertinent or insightful these might be). The focus is upon the ongoing feeling processes and possible insights of the actors rather than on the astute wisdom (cognition) of the viewing participants. This is true unless they themselves were so deeply drawn-in and involved that they became partners within the scene. Subsequent deliberations remain centered upon sorting out and coming to grips with the affective processes, on taking possible steps for creating effective support and change and determining how such steps can be actualized.

Before the  role playing exercise be terminated, role players as well as on looking participants, including the teaching person, all require sufficient opportunity to debrief as an essential feature of the total exercise. In role playing with much emotional involvement there are always the risks of stronger than usual personal experience, or misplaced feelings, or a projection of feelings which belong only to the role and its context. Role playing in relation to affect expression can be either a futile draining of energy or a powerful tool in learning about the flow and impact of affect processes

As Simulation

Role playing isn’t to be viewed as a particularly psychological procedure. Certainly, it has been widely used as a part of many different types of therapy, but this is because it’s a natural vehicle for learning. Role playing is simply a less technologically elaborate form of simulations.

Role playing, then, is nothing more than rehearsal. Musicians and  players, actors and firemen, all need to practice their skills. This is because complex operations cannot include all variables in a single lecture or even a thick book. Issues of adapting general principles to one’s own set of abilities, temperament, and background; working out the inevitable “bugs” any complex system generates; and preparing for unforeseen eventualities–all are frequent goals of  of role playing.

Procedure to Conduct a Role-Playing

There are three stages to a standard role-play

1.  Setting up:

In the set up stage, the training team describes the scenario and assigns roles to the participants.  If the participant plays a particular role in reality, it would be more effective to assign a different role to that participant during the role-play exercise.

Another option is to put together a single page description of the scenario to be worked out by the role-play participants.

Alternatively, it may be useful to write one-paragraph descriptions of the key role players.  A description can include the main objectives and concerns of the person in that role, perhaps can include some key dialogues or a statement to be read by the person playing the role.

2.  The Play Stage:

During the play stage, the participants act out their roles and the play is carried out.

If the role-play becomes too long, then the facilitators can give the participants a time warning of one or two minutes, and then end the play after that.

3.  The Follow Up:

It is important for all the participants to discuss what happened during the role-play.  They may question individual role-players to ask why they took a particular position, made a certain statement, or undertook an action.  The explanation and the resulting discussion is important for the participants to obtain a greater understanding of the social dynamics related to a particular “real life” situation.

Problems with Role Playing

Role playing is a technology for intensifying and accelerating learning; it is like electric power tools in relation to carpentry. Just as carpenters have to be skilled in the many components of their craft, so too do teachers have to be well trained and competent, or therapists well-grounded in the various aspects of that role. The tools aren’t panaceas, and they don’t work well if used carelessly or as a substitute for actual planning and thinking. And, like power tools, they can be dangerous. But even the old-fashioned types of saws and hammers could do damage if one doesn’t know or remember to apply the principles of safety.

The most common problem with role playing is that of the leader not appreciating its essential nature: It is an improvisational procedure, and improvisation requires a feeling of relative safety. This must be cultivated in a group, the teacher engaging the students in a “warming-up” process in which they get to know each other in a more trusting fashion and become involved in the theme to be learned. Learning how to warm up a class and how to keep the warm-up going is as much a part of role playing as a surgeon’s knowing how to prepare a patient for an operation.

Many people who have had unpleasant experiences with role playing in fact suffered because the teacher hadn’t warmed up the class or those assigned parts to their various roles. Simply assigning roles, saying to one person, “You’re the principal of a school,” and to another, “Okay, and you’re a kid who was sent to the principal’s office–go!” isn’t enough information and those thrown into this situation in that fashion will feel as if they’d been tossed into a pond and told to learn to swim. The teacher as dramatic producer needs to talk to each of the players, interview them “in role,” drawing them out regarding their thoughts about associated aspects of their role, gently involving them imaginatively in the situation.

Another problem with role playing arose when teachers gave into their own impulses to “play psychiatrist” and slip from dealing with the group problem to explore some issue to focusing on the real-life personal problems of a given individual.. It’s not much harder to prevent these mistakes than to teach safety procedures , but time must be taken to explicitly address these issues and these lessons need to be periodically repeated.

A third problem comes from the common tendency to assume that interpersonal skills are easier than technical skills–though in fact they are even more difficult–and so people tend to think they can engage in directing role playing before they’ve really achieved a level of bare competence. Well, sometimes teachers fail to appreciate the complexity of a skill they’re learning, and it’s important to emphasize that directing role playing is about as complex as learning how to deliver a baby. And it helps if the person doing the learning is also trained in other ways

Sometimes a role-play session may generate strong emotions (anger, dismay, disagreement), especially if some role-players take the play too seriously, and take extreme positions.  The follow-up discussions offer the facilitators an opening to explain that these reactions were caused by the structure of the situation, not by the stubbornness of the individuals playing the roles.  It is not necessary to avoid strong emotions; rather, it is an opportunity to reveal the nature of some “real-life” situations, and to encourage participants to be sensitive to the different assumptions, values, goals and positions that may be taken by different persons actually in “real life

Procedure for making a successful role play

There have already been some attempts to introduce a guide to making up a role play. Scholars suggest different steps and various successions in applying role play in teaching. Based on the empirical evidence, here is a suggested step-by-step guide for making a successful role play.

Step 1 – A Situation for a Role Play

To begin with, choose a situation for a role play, keeping in mind students’ needs and interests Teachers should select role plays that will give the students an opportunity to practice what they have learned. At the same time, we need a role play that interests the students. One way to make sure your role play is interesting is to let the students choose the situation themselves. They might either suggest themes that intrigue them or select a topic from a list of given situations. To find a situation for a role play, write down situations you encounter in your own life, or read a book or watch a movie, because their scenes can provide many different role play situations. You might make up an effective role play based on cultural differences.

Step 2 – Role Play Design

After choosing a context for a role play, the next step is to come up with ideas on how this situation may develop. Students’ level of language proficiency should be taken into consideration (Livingstone, 1983). If you feel that your role play requires more profound linguistic competence than the students possess, it would probably be better to simplify it or to leave it until appropriate. On low intermediate and more advanced levels, role plays with problems or conflicts in them work very well because they motivate the characters to talk, To build in these problems let the standard script go wrong. This will generate tension and make the role play more interesting.

Step 3 – Linguistic Preparation

Once you have selected a suitable role play, predict the language needed for it. At the beginning level, the language needed is almost completely predictable. The higher the level of students the more difficult it is to prefigure accurately what language students will need, but some prediction is possible anyway It is recommended to introduce any new vocabulary before the role play At the beginning level, you might want to elicit the development of the role play scenario from your students and then enrich it.

Step 4 – Factual Preparation

This step implies providing the students with concrete information and clear role descriptions so that they could play their roles with confidence. For example, in the situation at a railway station, the person giving the information should have relevant information: the times and destination of the trains, prices of tickets, etc. In a more advanced class and in a more elaborate situation include on a cue card a fictitious name, status, age, personality, and fictitious interests and desires. Describe each role in a manner that will let the students identify with the characters. Use the second person ‘you’ rather than the third person ‘he’ or ‘she.’ If your role presents a problem, just state the problem without giving any solutions. At the beginning level cue cards might contain detailed instructions

Step 5 – Assigning the Roles

Some instructors ask for volunteers to act out a role play in front of the class), though it might be a good idea to plan in advance what roles to assign to which students. At the beginning level the teacher can take one of the roles and act it out as a model. Sometimes, the students have role play exercises for the home task. They learn useful words and expressions think about what they can say and then act out the role play in the next class.

There can be one or several role play groups. If the whole class represents one role play group, it is necessary to keep some minor roles which can be taken away if there are less people in class than expected). If the teacher runs out of roles, he/she can assign one role to two students, in which one speaks secret thoughts of the other with several role play groups, when deciding on their composition, both the abilities and the personalities of the students should be taken into consideration. For example, a group consisting only of the shyest students will not be a success. Very often, optimum interaction can be reached by letting the students work in one group with their friends

(Whether taking any part in the role plays or not, the role of the teacher is to be as unobtrusive as possible) He or she is listening for students’ errors making notes. Mistakes noted during the role play will provide the teacher with feedback for further practice and revision. It is recommended that the instructor avoids intervening in a role play with error corrections not to discourage the students.

Step 6 – Follow-up

Once the role play is finished, spend some time on debriefing. This does not mean pointing out and correcting mistakes. After the role play, the students are satisfied with themselves; they feel that they have used their knowledge of the language for something concrete and useful. This feeling of satisfaction will disappear if every mistake is analyzed. It might also make the students less confident and less willing to do the other role plays

Follow-up means asking every student’s opinion about the role play and welcoming their comments the aim is to discuss what has happened in the role play and what they have learned. In addition to group discussion, an evaluation questionnaire can be used. ” .

Precautions for success in role playing

The commonest complaint is that they are “unrealistic”; in practice this usually means that they are too realistic for comfort! However, they stand in the same relationship to real life as cartoons do to photographs. They point up certain features and ignore others. In this respect, they present fairly well-defined problems (much more clearly defined than in real life, and usually not mixed up with other issues a. That is a problem, because it is undoubtedly one of the best methods of developing interpersonal skills in a safe situation, and of bringing alive material which would otherwise simply be “academic” in the pejorative sense of the term..

Suggestion to minimize the negative aspects:

1.            Carefully select the course content and course information and the viewers about whether  and when  the role-play will be involved, and what the expectations are about participation. It is better if people do not come at all, than if they turn up and then interrupt the proceedings by complaining that they don’t like role-play. (Their anxiety is often infectious.)

2.            If you have got a group in which some people are likely to be reluctant to participate, check out your plans explicitly, in a way which means that participants can opt out without confrontation. Use methods such as small syndicate groups working to brief one member to participate in the role-play on their behalf: it promotes involvement without everyone being “exposed”.

3.            Be matter-of-fact about it. For example, many manuals emphasize the importance of “de-rolling” and certainly there are occasions when that require considerable work—but those are largely situations bordering on psychodrama, rather than practice of professional skills. De-rolling can be done in a simple and ritualized way, very effectively. If you are anxious about the process, the anxiety will communicate itself to the course members, and undermine the effectiveness of the method.

4.            If role-play is likely to be central to the learning process, use it frequently throughout the course, rather than building up to the role play as a climax.

5.            Participate yourself. If you are demonstrating points, invite a member of the group to act as your “foil”, feed or straight-man. Use such opportunities to routines aspects of role-play: get your partner to move out of her or his seat and to take up an appropriate position in relation to you, for example. Thank her and let her sit down again (and have her say) as soon as you have finished.

6.            Make the instructions and procedures very clear, perhaps with a handout. In particular, be clear about time-limits if anyone is nervous: a time-limited commitment is easier to handle than an open-ended one. Always stick to time-limits: it shows trustworthiness.

7.            For the first try, get participants to role-play doing something as badly as possible. Not only is it an effective ice-breaker, but it is easy to draw out the teaching points in discussion afterwards.

8.            Be focused. Be clear about why you want to/need to use role-play (as opposed to simple discussion, or the use of video demonstration, etc.). If it is to practice a particular technique or method, bring it in step by step, rather than plunging people in with “now you try it”.

9.            Give plenty of thought to the role-play scenario. It needs to be focused so that it brings out the relevant skills above all. All participants also need to have a common understanding of the situation and the background. This can be tricky: you don’t want to go into tremendous detail because it is a distraction, but on the other hand it is not uncommon for a participant to “hi-jack” a role-play by trotting out a piece of information which in real life would be known to both participants, thereby forcing their partner to adjust to it

10.          Remember that it is often the person taking the “client”, “consumer”, etc., non-professional role who learns most from the experience: do not neglect this in the interests of the “professional” role.

11.If there are technical points at issue, feel free to adopt a convention of “time-out”, when you can stop the process in mid-flow and have a few moments to think (or even consult with others). Agree a clear signal for time-out in advance (a sweeping “cut” gesture works quite well, for example, and is not likely to be part of the role-play action). The other participant, of course, has to remain “frozen” during the time-out.

12.let a role-play pass without comment. Have a clear procedure for review, included in the briefing and strictly followed, in which articipants give their reactions first, usually starting with the person who took the more/most  difficult/vulnerable role, or that furthest from her or his “normal” self. This is usually sufficient de-rolling, and permits cathartic laughter, swearing etc briefed them, the other members of that group get the next opportunity to comment. The rest of the course group get their say

Finally, the teacher comments. You should by now have heard everything from everyone else: you may simply need to confirm or build on points which have already been made. Just occasionally, the participants will have totally missed the point. Even so, start with the positives, and if you can, draw out the critical comments via questioning. This has the effect of dividing the responsibility for being critical—it’s partly yours because you asked the question, and partly that of the person who answers—and this makes it easier both to make and receive critical comments.

In addition to its integration in the ordinary classroom, this methods can also be used synergistically with special programs for children “at risk.” Some children have special needs; some are physically, emotionally, or developmentally disabled; and some are simply not the kinds of children who do well in traditional classrooms and need a more active, multi-modal, experiential approach. Again, role playing in itself is no panacea, any more than the new “-scope” technologies now revolutionizing surgery can be effectively applied by people with little training. These are tools, and in good hands, they can powerfully enhance the attainment of the teachers’ goals.  The movement towards social and emotional learning in the schools and the promotion of emotional intelligence also should make use of this valuable resource.

REFERANCES-

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Chesler, M., and Fox, R. (1966). Role-playing methods in the classroom. Chicago: Science Research Associates..

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Heinig, Ruth B. & Stillwell, L. (1975). Creative dramatics for the classroom teacher. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Kritzerow, P. (1990). Active learning in the classroom: The use of group role plays. Teaching sociology, 18(2), 223-225.

Lee, Teena. (1991). The sociodramatist and sociometrist in the primary school. Journal of Group Psychotherapy, Psychodrama & Sociometry, 43(4), 191-196.

Lyons, V. (1977). Psychodrama as a counseling technique with children. Elementary School Guidance & Counseling, 11(4), 252-57.

McCaslin, Nellie. (1984). Creative dramatics in the classroom. New York: David McKay Co.

Milroy, E. (1982). Role-play: A practical guide. Scotland: Aberdeen University Press.

Shearon, E. M., and Shearon, W. (1973). Some uses of psychodrama in education. Group Psychotherapy & Psychodrama, 26(3-4), 47-53.

Stanford, G., and Roark, A. (1974). Human interaction in education. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Acknowledgements

Dr. Saroj Agarwal and Pallavi Singh for being scribes for this article.